Editorial articles

Nutrition is underrepresented in the medical curriculum; this has always been the case, but recently there has been a focus on trying to change this. A ‘call for action’ by the independent organisation Nutritank CIC and the Nutrition Implementation Coalition has led the way for this. New recommendations for curriculum changes have been proposed, but no mandatory changes are yet in place.

Significant pharmacologic, interventional and surgical strategies in the management of coronary syndromes, together with evolving surgical and non-surgical innovations for valvular disease and improved care of congenital heart disease, have ensured that patients live longer and better lives. With these advancing therapies for cardiac disease, the number of patients surviving to develop end-stage heart failure continues to increase exponentially. While the heart as an organ has evolved to demonstrate remarkable resilience in the setting of disease, death from cardiovascular causes remains the most common cause of death in many parts of the world. Given the significant morbidity and mortality associated with end-stage heart failure, the last half century has been notable for a concentrated effort on developing therapies for the failing heart.

In this issue, Professor Stephen Westaby (see https://doi.org/10.5837/bjc.2022.021) provides an insightful personal perspective on a laudable life-long pursuit in the development of mechanical circulatory support with the ultimate goal of a fully implantable device. His long career has been punctuated by a number of seminal achievements, which have led to incremental improvements in a challenging area.

On the 31^st March 2021, the German Health Ministry – on the advice of the Standing Committee on Vaccination (STIKO) – declared that the Astra Zeneca/Oxford Vaxzevria vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19), based on a chimpanzee adenovirus genetic scaffold, henceChAdOx1, would no longer be administered to those under the age of 60 years. In its hands were details of 31 cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST) cases provided by the Paul Ehrlich Institute. These cases, of whom 19 had platelet deficiency, were seen after 2.7 million first and 767 second vaccine doses.

The paper by Gall et al., published in this issue (see https://doi.org/10.5837/bjc.2022.003), is timely and important; the largest case series from the UK, and among the largest globally detailing the clinical characteristics of patients affected with postural tachycardia syndrome (PoTS) developing after a COVID-19 infection. It brings empirical stature to the anecdotal reports of PoTS developing post-COVID-19. It articulates that this presents in a form indistinguishable from PoTS precipitated by other events.

The European guidelines on cardiovascular disease (CVD) prevention in clinical practice have focused on prevention through behaviour change by highlighting and promoting lifestyle therapies to better address the needs of individuals with a high-risk profile. Programmes using motivational interviewing are promising in encouraging lifestyle change. While motivational interviewing may support individuals to modify risk, its effectiveness remains uncertain. Here, we offer reflections on the application of motivational interviewing in preventive cardiology, areas of controversy, and glimpses of potential future lifestyle interventions using motivational interviewing to prevent CVD development.

Heart disease remains a major cause of death and disability in Scotland, accounting for around 10,000 deaths each year.¹ Ischaemic heart disease is still Scotland’s single biggest killer, responsible for 11.3% of all deaths in 2018, and accounts for 25,000 hospital admissions each year. While it is true that there have been improvements in survival from heart attacks and other acute events in Scotland over the last half century, it is also the case that significant challenges remain.

The reduction in deaths from heart attacks means that more people are living with heart disease as a long-term condition. On top of this, the population is getting older,² and increasingly people are living with associated comorbidities, many requiring long-term support. The number of people living with cardiovascular risk factors in Scotland continues to increase, health inequalities persist and in some cases, have worsened.³

Beyond ischaemic heart disease, the incidence of conditions like heart failure,⁴ heart valve disease,⁵ and atrial fibrillation are increasing. There is also a need to consider the impact of less common, but no less important conditions, such as congenital heart disease and inherited heart conditions. Around 28,000 people in Scotland have an inherited heart condition, the most common of which is hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Congenital heart disease is one of the most common birth defects in Scotland, affecting around one in every 150 births. Improved survival rates mean that a growing number of people are living into adulthood with congenital heart disease.

“I will not lose; either I win or I learn” – Marian Ionescu, circa 1971

The pericardial heart valve concept is the remarkable legacy of a man and his genius. His single most defining contribution has changed the course of cardiac surgery over the last half a century and benefitted millions of patients worldwide. Since the initial design by Hufnagel of the ball-cage valve implanted in the descending thoracic aorta (1953) to correct a regurgitant aortic valve, nearly 150 valves have been designed and tested. None has stood the test of time as well as the pericardial valve (figure 1). Since the first successful human implant of the pericardial valve in the mitral position in 1971, 10 million of these have been implanted worldwide. Pericardial valves now constitute 80% of all implanted valves. The invention has driven a multi-billion dollar industry that today forms the backbone of the healthcare technology sector.

Cardiorenal syndrome has attracted an enormous amount of attention, particularly in the last decade. A lot of research has been conducted in pathophysiology, haemodynamic manifestations, therapeutic options, and clinical outcomes.^1,2 In practice, however, cardiorenal syndrome remains clinically challenging for both cardiologists and nephrologists. Cardiorenal syndrome covers a wide range of structural and functional disorders of both the heart and kidneys. Typically, the acute or chronic dysfunction in one organ induces acute or chronic dysfunction in the other. The interaction between the two organs may well be in multiple interfaces, such as haemodynamic cross-talk between the failing heart and the response of the kidneys and vice versa, alterations in neurohormonal markers, as well as inflammatory molecular characteristics.² Much of the credit for the initial description of cardiorenal syndrome is attributed to Robert Bright who, in 1836, described the interdependent relationship between the kidney and the heart based on his observations on significant cardiac structural changes seen in patients with advanced kidney disease.³ The formal definition of cardiorenal syndrome and its classifications were established more recently,^1,2,4 although uncertainty remains still. The classification appears to be attractive and easily applicable in clinical practice, but its value in aiding treatment or prevention strategy has yet to be ascertained.⁴

The world is changing or is it? Science is changing or is it?

The concept of race based on skin colour, is an entirely social construct and its harbinger, segregation and slavery, projects itself into our modern day as racism. Perhaps more recently, it is acknowledged that racism remains a clear and present danger in today’s world. It is deeply rooted within the fabric of society and can only be tackled by active and persistent engagement.

In scientific circles, what is whispered but not openly spoken about is the cumulative acts of indifference that contribute to racial disparities in healthcare within our society. This comes in the form of implicit and subconscious biases that affect healthcare allocation and worse, delivery, in the form of differential treatment of patients.¹ This is as deadly as it is silent. As clinicians and academics who contribute to healthcare, we can either pretend this doesn’t exist or we can educate ourselves, and others, to foster health equity for all.

The European Society of Cardiology (ESC) updated their guidelines on stable chest pain in 2019,¹ and recommended the use of either imaging stress tests or computed tomography (CT) coronary angiography (CTCA). They emphasised the importance of imaging stress tests or CT fractional flow reserve (CT-FFR) as a second test, to assess any coronary stenoses found on CTCA. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) 2016 guidelines, on stable chest pain,² recommend CTCA for all patients with new-onset chest pain and, in a separate guideline in 2017,³ recommended CT-FFR to assess coronary stenoses. This need for a second test for the assessment of the significance of coronary stenoses is to reduce the need for invasive coronary angiography (ICA), because CTCA can be associated with false-positive results, as it can overestimate the degree of coronary stenosis, compared with ICA.⁴