Volumes

Acute coronary syndrome (ACS) events in people receiving long-term haemodialysis (HD) are common, present atypically and are associated with poor outcomes.^1–3 Diagnosis is challenging, and treatment even more so. The complexity of this population drives their exclusion from clinical trials, resulting in a scarcity of evidence supporting any ‘optimal’ treatment strategy.⁴ Guidelines are, as a result, vague and, to a degree, contradictory.^5–7 These are some of the reasons that the combination of cardiac and renal disease strike fear into even the most seasoned clinicians. Is it this fear that underlies the observed conservatism in treatment of those with advanced chronic kidney disease (CKD), and are we, therefore, contributing inadvertently to the adverse outcomes we are simultaneously striving to avoid? I commend Muhammad Haider and colleagues for tackling this challenging area, and attempting to summarise our knowledge in their review: “Diagnosis and management of ACS in patients with ESRD on haemodialysis: a comprehensive review”.⁸

The arrival of sodium-glucose cotransporter type 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors has ushered in a new era in the management of cardiometabolic diseases. These innovative agents, initially developed for glycaemic control in type 2 diabetes, have unexpectedly demonstrated significant cardiovascular benefits, revolutionising cardiologists’ approach to the prevention and treatment of heart failure and cardiovascular events.¹

Cardiovascular disease remains the leading cause of death for women, responsible for over a third of all deaths.¹ In contrast, women remain widely under-represented in cardiovascular trials,² as well as in their roles as physicians and trialists.³

The scarcity of female representation in cardiology carries broad consequences, affecting patient care quality, workplace diversity, and the inclusion of women in clinical trials. Engaging more women in academia and industry collaborations can boost their professional visibility, career opportunities, and increases the likelihood of female patients to receive guideline-based therapies, all of which highlights the need for gender diversity in cardiology.⁴

A quiet revolution without fanfare took place at a meeting, witnessed by over 1,000 people both in London and live streamed across the globe on 31 January 2024. It was unprecedented, going against received wisdom. That, it was possible to treat atherosclerotic coronary artery disease with an updated Andreas Grüntzig’s balloon alone, without the safety net and comfort of implanting a single stent. Three interactive cases were treated with the drug-coated balloon and all patients were same-day discharged. Seemingly a show of simplicity, parsimony and bravado, but dive a little deeper, the skill set for stent-free coronary intervention has been meticulously studied over the last 20 years by pioneers and early adopters alike. The sacred cow slayed on this historic day was that balloon-inflicted coronary dissection rarely leads to occlusion, having effective antiplatelet therapy on board. And, potentially occlusive dissection is, not only predictable, but this method can be used in the ambulatory care setting. Thus, saving hospital bed stays. This event will be remembered as the tipping point at which a paradigm shift has occurred, but going back to embracing Grüntzig’s lessons. This is timely too, considering that two decades of systematic stenting has led to stent failures comprising nearly a third of daily interventional workload.

There is little doubt that demand on the National Health Service (NHS) has exceeded supply. Given the rhetoric of no more money, no new workforce, and no new estates, it is incumbent on us all to make better and more efficient use of the limited resource we do have, improve how we work together as one integrated health, community and social care ecosystem, and increase the value of every action we take. Cardiovascular services are no exception.

Training and development of cardiology trainees in the UK at a local level, is usually delivered through senior supervision by a consultant cardiologist. This training is overseen by clinical and educational supervisors, whose role is to set goals in line with existing training curricula. This is crucial to ensuring trainee development and attainment of skills in line with a pre-determined ‘gold standard’ for independent practice.

“In spite of the accumulating evidence of their efficacy, established treatments for maintaining renal function remain woefully underutilized. Clinicians and health care systems must be encouraged to make use of these treatments.”¹

The above was written in an editorial by Thomas Hostetter¹ that accompanied three landmark nephrology trials published in 2001.^2–4 The studies will be well-known to nephrologists and demonstrated that angiotensin-receptor blockers (ARBs) had anti-proteinuric effects and/or slowed the decline of kidney function in patients with diabetic kidney disease. These trials added weight to the evidence that supported the use of both angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) or ARBs in diabetic kidney disease and chronic kidney disease (CKD), particularly in patients with proteinuria.⁵ The evidence-base supporting the use of these drugs for patients with heart failure and cardiovascular diseases is unquestioned, and given the inter-related nature of the heart and the kidneys, the hope and optimism around these drugs was understandable. Dr Hostetter, however, was right to be cautious in his appraisal of the impact these medications might have on outcomes for patients with CKD, not because of the quality or compelling nature of the trial data, but because of the difficulties overcoming clinical and systems-related inertia to achieve effective implementation of the drugs. His predictions have proved cogent.

“Seek simplicity and distrust it.”
Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947), English philosopher and mathematician

The metric ejection fraction (EF) is widely employed to evaluate ventricular pumping performance, used for heart failure (HF) classification, and its calculation is simple.^1–3 For example, with end-systolic volume (ESV) =50 ml and end-diastolic volume (EDV) =100 ml, the EF=50%. Unfortunately, its correct interpretation received insufficient attention. As EF is a ratio-based number (or percentage) without physical unit(s), it cannot provide unique information. The underlying problem, and also a logical solution, can be shown by the ventricular volume domain representation (figure 1A) that relates ESV to EDV. Volumes may be indexed (i) for body surface area, if appropriate. Focusing on ESVi and EDVi is important, as this combination is associated with the familiar pressure–volume (PV) loop description, which, in turn, connects with clinically relevant characteristics, such as stroke work and myocardial oxygen consumption (MVO₂).¹

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) is the leading cause of death worldwide, causing around 17.9 million deaths annually, a third of whom are adults aged <70 years.¹ In addition to genetic and behavioural risk factors (unhealthy diet, physical inactivity, and tobacco and alcohol abuse), inhaling airborne pollutants, such as fine particulate matter (<2.5 µm [PM_2.5] and <10 µm [PM₁₀]), ultrafine particles (UFPs; <100 nm), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), ozone (O₃), and sulphur dioxide (SO₂), are associated with ASCVD among adults.²

Air pollution has been referred to as “the single most important environmental factor presenting a risk to health and represents a greater disease burden than polluted water, soil contamination and occupational exposures combined”.³ Air pollution is a silent killer and was highlighted as a significant public health concern in the recently published European Society of Cardiology (ESC) guidelines.⁴

The impact of urbanisation on air pollution levels is a critical concern for countries like Malta, which have adopted a city model to bolster their economies. Despite efforts to stimulate economic growth, the rise in urbanisation can pose risks to air quality. In London, mean PM_2.5 concentrations stood at approximately 12.7 µg/m³ in 2017, 12.0 µg/m³ in 2018, and 11.4 µg/m³ in 2019.⁵ Conversely, Valletta, Malta’s capital, recorded mean PM_2.5 concentrations of about 14 µg/m³ in 2017, 14.4 µg/m³ in 2018, and 14 µg/m³ in 2019.⁶ While both have seen improvements in their aggregated annual mean PM_2.5 concentrations compared with the concentration levels recorded in the past decade, they still exceed the World Health Organisation (WHO) annual air quality guideline value by approximately 1.14 to 1.4 times, highlighting the persistent challenge of air pollution in urban environments.

At the Association of Cardiovascular Nursing & Allied Professions conference in June, Professor Tiny Jaarsma called for a pillar of self-care to be added to heart failure (HF) care guidelines.¹ Taylor et al.² agree that HF care needs an additional pillar and suggest cardiac rehabilitation. Currently, the HF pillars are focused on medications shown to improve the outcomes of people with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF),³ but other key non-pharmacological interventions are not considered. Also, the pillars of care do not provide guidance for people with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), which represent 50% of the HF population.⁴ While these pillars focus on a single important aspect of care, they do not capture the totality of HF management or illness types. A focus on interventions to improve HF management is welcome but can obscure the challenges that treatment – as well as illness – impose on patients and their carers.

Twenty years ago, Wald and Law¹ hypothesised that, if a combination pill could be made including aspirin, folic acid, a statin, and a low-dose diuretic, beta blocker and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor (thus, allowing for the simultaneous modification of four different risk factors: low-density lipoprotein [LDL]-cholesterol, blood pressure, homocysteine, and platelet function), and administered to everyone with existing cardiovascular disease and everyone over 55 years old, there would be an 88% reduction in ischaemic heart disease events, and an 80% reduction in stroke. One third of people over the age of 55 years would benefit by gaining an average of 11 years free from a cardiac event or stroke (subsequently termed the vaccination approach). They called this pill the ‘Polypill’, and concluded that treatment would be acceptably safe and, with widespread use, would have a greater impact on the prevention of disease in the Western world than any other single intervention. They noted that, while such a preventative strategy was radical, if such a formulation existed that prevented cancer and was safe, it would be widely used. “It is time to discard the view that risk factors need to be measured and treated individually if found to be abnormal. There is much to gain and little to lose by the widespread use of these drugs.” While subsequent works have shown that folic acid is not prognostically beneficial in preventing cardiovascular disease,² and that aspirin may not be beneficial overall in primary prevention settings,³ the concept of the combination pill was awakened in the public eye.

It is no secret that the National Health Service (NHS) is currently screaming along in fifth gear just to stay on a country lane: and we haven’t yet reached the motorway that lies ahead.

The NHS long-term plan couldn’t be more current, but it could perhaps have been more timely.¹ Successive governments have watched our population changing shape and ageing over the last 20 years, but a powerful response to that looming ‘motorway’ of healthcare demand has only now materialised. The backlash of COVID-19 and the realisation of the impact of Brexit on NHS staff has become the ‘speed camera’ the NHS needed.

In 2022, the British Society of Echocardiography (BSE) commissioned Professor Alison Leary, Chair of Workforce Modelling at London South Bank University, to design a workforce survey that would allow us to fully understand the challenges facing the echocardiography workforce. This report and the policy report, which models solutions onto these data, can be read in full through our website (bsecho.org).^2,3

This is my viewpoint on the messages contained within these gold-dust documents painted within the landscape of three years of fascinating conversations with many members of our profession and the national agencies we interact with.

Hypertension affects over a billion people worldwide and is a leading cause of premature death and disability. However, it continues to remain a silent epidemic, with the majority of patients undiagnosed or untreated. The World Health Organisation reports that only 42% of individuals with hypertension receive a diagnosis and appropriate treatment. Furthermore, only one in five adults have their blood pressure under control.¹ These statistics reflect a grave failure in identifying and managing a condition that has far-reaching health consequences. The misdiagnosis and undertreatment of blood pressure pose substantial risks to individuals and impose a tremendous burden on healthcare systems worldwide.

Access to echocardiography represents the main current barrier to early detection of heart valve disease in the UK. One-third to two-thirds of outpatient echocardiography requests are made to investigate a murmur,^1–3 and almost a fifth of cases have moderate or severe heart valve disease.³ In early 2022, 155,000 people were waiting for outpatient echocardiography in the UK,⁴ with up to 91,450 likely to have a murmur, and up to 16,461 likely to have moderate or severe heart valve disease. Delayed diagnosis causes delay in management with potential negative consequences on patient outcome. Consequently, the British Heart Valve Society (BHVS) recommends easy access to echocardiography for patients with suspected heart valve disease; it also recommends that echocardiography departments have a system of alerts for detected significant heart valve disease.

Aortic dissection is often thought of as a rare condition with a poor prognosis and to be the provenance of a few medical specialists. Beyond this misconception, there are further challenges; half of the people who suffer an acute aortic dissection die before reaching hospital,¹ and the number of sufferers is set to double by 2050.¹ As many people suffer an aortic dissection each year as are diagnosed with a brain tumour,² and 7% of people who have an out-of-hospital cardiac arrest do so due to an aortic dissection.³

While treatment of patients with an acute dissection is usually undertaken by a few medical specialists, a wide range of healthcare professionals may interact with patients with an aortic dissection. As well as cardiac and vascular surgeons, pre-hospital clinicians, emergency medicine, acute medicine, cardiology and general practice are all likely to encounter patients with aortic dissection.

Education and pathway improvement are key elements of improving outcomes for patients with aortic dissection. It is a great pleasure to share three articles as a partnership between The Aortic Dissection Charitable Trust and British Journal of Cardiology, and in collaboration with the UK-Aortic Society.

The first article is written by Dr Karen Booth who is a Consultant Cardiac Surgeon at Freeman Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, and focuses on the epidemiology, pathophysiology and natural history of acute aortic dissection.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) and heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) commonly co-exist. Sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors have recently emerged as key disease-modifying therapies for both conditions. In the second half of 2022, EMPA-KIDNEY (Empagliflozin in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease) and DELIVER (Dapagliflozin Evaluation to Improve the LIVEs of Patients With PReserved Ejection Fraction Heart Failure) – two large placebo-controlled trials conducted in these populations – published their main results and expanded the evidence base in patients with and without diabetes. About one-half of each of the trials’ respective populations did not have diabetes at recruitment.^1,2 Importantly, EMPA-KIDNEY represents patients with low levels of kidney function: mean estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) of 37 ± 14 ml/min/1.73 m². Both trials’ main reports were accompanied by meta-analyses in The Lancet, ensuring the new results could be reviewed in the context of the totality of evidence.

Calcific aortic valve stenosis (aortic stenosis [AS] characterised by progressive fibro-calcific leaflet remodelling) leading to blood flow restriction is the most frequent structural heart disease, with mortality rates increasing across Europe since 2000. Symptoms are insidious at onset and development of any of the three cardinal symptoms of angina, syncope, or heart failure portend a poor prognosis, with aortic valve replacement (AVR) showing a consistent improvement for both symptom-free and overall survival.

Current guidelines recommend AVR in symptomatic severe AS but the role of AVR in patients with asymptomatic severe or moderate stenosis is evolving. In the last decade the rapid adoption of transcatheter AVR (TAVR) has raised new treatment paradigms for AVR across the spectrum of risk. Opportunities to improve outcomes include earlier diagnosis and a reconsideration of intervention timing in the asymptomatic severe and moderate categories of AS, along with a reconsideration of the patient lifelong aortic valve care plan.

International guidelines recommend multi-disciplinary ‘Heart Teams’ as the preferred clinical method in decision-making¹ for multi-dimensional, pre-procedural work-up: surgical risk evaluation; clinical assessment; multi-modality valve imaging; and coronary disease management. Heart Teams have evolved central to the process, and bear responsibility for offering each patient a tailored approach.² With approximately 5,000 AS patients having not received treatment, over eight months in 2020, following the COVID-19 outbreak (UK TAVR Registry and the National Adult Cardiac Surgery Audit),³ there is a need to meet increasing demands and reverse the drop in SAVR/TAVR activity. The authors have reviewed what the future holds for AS management.

Acute coronary syndrome (ACS) is one of the leading causes for morbidity and mortality in the world despite advances in treatment as shown by both short- and long-term studies.¹ Studies demonstrate that factors responsible for increased risk of future cardiovascular events are often ignored resulting in increased morbidity and mortality.^1,2 Despite the significant reduction of in-hospital mortality in patients with ACS, the overall mortality and morbidity remains high due to missed opportunities to optimise treatment.³ The Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events (GRACE) conducted in centres in Belgium and the United Kingdom (UK) shows a long-term signal of recurrent events, such that in-hospital mortality was 3%, 4% and 5% at five-year follow up and that mortality was 15% and 18% for Belgium and UK patients, respectively.⁴ The GRACE study showed that patients with a higher GRACE score were at higher risk compared to low and moderate scores, and 68%, 86% and 97% deaths occurred in patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), ACS and unstable angina, respectively, after initial hospital discharge. Patients with non-ST segment elevated myocardial infarction (NSTEMI) were found to have poor prognosis at six-month follow up, compared to STEMI patients, which was most likely due to patients being on less-than-optimal treatment. Medication compliance among patients is highest in the first month after ACS and Cheng et al., reported that from patients discharged on aspirin, beta blocker and statins, 34% patients had stopped at least one medicine and 12% had stopped all three medications a month after ACS.⁵ Only 40–45% patients were adherent with beta blocker or statins one to two years following ACS.

Some healthcare professionals may see the idea of ‘joint working’ between NHS Trusts and pharmaceutical companies as anathema – a bridge too far in the direction of private interests perhaps? However, when the needs of patients, the health system and the company are aligned, it can bring significant benefits for everyone.

At the Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust (LTHT), we have recently entered into a joint working partnership with Boehringer Ingelheim.¹ This arrangement is helping us to develop a patient-centred clinic specifically focused on reducing cardiovascular (CV) risk in individuals with diabetes recently discharged from LTHT following a myocardial infarction (MI). Initiated in September 2021, the clinic is run jointly by the cardiology department at Leeds General Infirmary and the diabetes services at the Trust. It is shared funded by the Trust and by Boehringer Ingelheim.

Nutrition is underrepresented in the medical curriculum; this has always been the case, but recently there has been a focus on trying to change this. A ‘call for action’ by the independent organisation Nutritank CIC and the Nutrition Implementation Coalition has led the way for this. New recommendations for curriculum changes have been proposed, but no mandatory changes are yet in place.

Significant pharmacologic, interventional and surgical strategies in the management of coronary syndromes, together with evolving surgical and non-surgical innovations for valvular disease and improved care of congenital heart disease, have ensured that patients live longer and better lives. With these advancing therapies for cardiac disease, the number of patients surviving to develop end-stage heart failure continues to increase exponentially. While the heart as an organ has evolved to demonstrate remarkable resilience in the setting of disease, death from cardiovascular causes remains the most common cause of death in many parts of the world. Given the significant morbidity and mortality associated with end-stage heart failure, the last half century has been notable for a concentrated effort on developing therapies for the failing heart.

In this issue, Professor Stephen Westaby (see https://doi.org/10.5837/bjc.2022.021) provides an insightful personal perspective on a laudable life-long pursuit in the development of mechanical circulatory support with the ultimate goal of a fully implantable device. His long career has been punctuated by a number of seminal achievements, which have led to incremental improvements in a challenging area.

On the 31^st March 2021, the German Health Ministry – on the advice of the Standing Committee on Vaccination (STIKO) – declared that the Astra Zeneca/Oxford Vaxzevria vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19), based on a chimpanzee adenovirus genetic scaffold, henceChAdOx1, would no longer be administered to those under the age of 60 years. In its hands were details of 31 cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST) cases provided by the Paul Ehrlich Institute. These cases, of whom 19 had platelet deficiency, were seen after 2.7 million first and 767 second vaccine doses.

The paper by Gall et al., published in this issue (see https://doi.org/10.5837/bjc.2022.003), is timely and important; the largest case series from the UK, and among the largest globally detailing the clinical characteristics of patients affected with postural tachycardia syndrome (PoTS) developing after a COVID-19 infection. It brings empirical stature to the anecdotal reports of PoTS developing post-COVID-19. It articulates that this presents in a form indistinguishable from PoTS precipitated by other events.

The European guidelines on cardiovascular disease (CVD) prevention in clinical practice have focused on prevention through behaviour change by highlighting and promoting lifestyle therapies to better address the needs of individuals with a high-risk profile. Programmes using motivational interviewing are promising in encouraging lifestyle change. While motivational interviewing may support individuals to modify risk, its effectiveness remains uncertain. Here, we offer reflections on the application of motivational interviewing in preventive cardiology, areas of controversy, and glimpses of potential future lifestyle interventions using motivational interviewing to prevent CVD development.

Heart disease remains a major cause of death and disability in Scotland, accounting for around 10,000 deaths each year.¹ Ischaemic heart disease is still Scotland’s single biggest killer, responsible for 11.3% of all deaths in 2018, and accounts for 25,000 hospital admissions each year. While it is true that there have been improvements in survival from heart attacks and other acute events in Scotland over the last half century, it is also the case that significant challenges remain.

The reduction in deaths from heart attacks means that more people are living with heart disease as a long-term condition. On top of this, the population is getting older,² and increasingly people are living with associated comorbidities, many requiring long-term support. The number of people living with cardiovascular risk factors in Scotland continues to increase, health inequalities persist and in some cases, have worsened.³

Beyond ischaemic heart disease, the incidence of conditions like heart failure,⁴ heart valve disease,⁵ and atrial fibrillation are increasing. There is also a need to consider the impact of less common, but no less important conditions, such as congenital heart disease and inherited heart conditions. Around 28,000 people in Scotland have an inherited heart condition, the most common of which is hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Congenital heart disease is one of the most common birth defects in Scotland, affecting around one in every 150 births. Improved survival rates mean that a growing number of people are living into adulthood with congenital heart disease.

“I will not lose; either I win or I learn” – Marian Ionescu, circa 1971

The pericardial heart valve concept is the remarkable legacy of a man and his genius. His single most defining contribution has changed the course of cardiac surgery over the last half a century and benefitted millions of patients worldwide. Since the initial design by Hufnagel of the ball-cage valve implanted in the descending thoracic aorta (1953) to correct a regurgitant aortic valve, nearly 150 valves have been designed and tested. None has stood the test of time as well as the pericardial valve (figure 1). Since the first successful human implant of the pericardial valve in the mitral position in 1971, 10 million of these have been implanted worldwide. Pericardial valves now constitute 80% of all implanted valves. The invention has driven a multi-billion dollar industry that today forms the backbone of the healthcare technology sector.

Cardiorenal syndrome has attracted an enormous amount of attention, particularly in the last decade. A lot of research has been conducted in pathophysiology, haemodynamic manifestations, therapeutic options, and clinical outcomes.^1,2 In practice, however, cardiorenal syndrome remains clinically challenging for both cardiologists and nephrologists. Cardiorenal syndrome covers a wide range of structural and functional disorders of both the heart and kidneys. Typically, the acute or chronic dysfunction in one organ induces acute or chronic dysfunction in the other. The interaction between the two organs may well be in multiple interfaces, such as haemodynamic cross-talk between the failing heart and the response of the kidneys and vice versa, alterations in neurohormonal markers, as well as inflammatory molecular characteristics.² Much of the credit for the initial description of cardiorenal syndrome is attributed to Robert Bright who, in 1836, described the interdependent relationship between the kidney and the heart based on his observations on significant cardiac structural changes seen in patients with advanced kidney disease.³ The formal definition of cardiorenal syndrome and its classifications were established more recently,^1,2,4 although uncertainty remains still. The classification appears to be attractive and easily applicable in clinical practice, but its value in aiding treatment or prevention strategy has yet to be ascertained.⁴

The world is changing or is it? Science is changing or is it?

The concept of race based on skin colour, is an entirely social construct and its harbinger, segregation and slavery, projects itself into our modern day as racism. Perhaps more recently, it is acknowledged that racism remains a clear and present danger in today’s world. It is deeply rooted within the fabric of society and can only be tackled by active and persistent engagement.

In scientific circles, what is whispered but not openly spoken about is the cumulative acts of indifference that contribute to racial disparities in healthcare within our society. This comes in the form of implicit and subconscious biases that affect healthcare allocation and worse, delivery, in the form of differential treatment of patients.¹ This is as deadly as it is silent. As clinicians and academics who contribute to healthcare, we can either pretend this doesn’t exist or we can educate ourselves, and others, to foster health equity for all.

The European Society of Cardiology (ESC) updated their guidelines on stable chest pain in 2019,¹ and recommended the use of either imaging stress tests or computed tomography (CT) coronary angiography (CTCA). They emphasised the importance of imaging stress tests or CT fractional flow reserve (CT-FFR) as a second test, to assess any coronary stenoses found on CTCA. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) 2016 guidelines, on stable chest pain,² recommend CTCA for all patients with new-onset chest pain and, in a separate guideline in 2017,³ recommended CT-FFR to assess coronary stenoses. This need for a second test for the assessment of the significance of coronary stenoses is to reduce the need for invasive coronary angiography (ICA), because CTCA can be associated with false-positive results, as it can overestimate the degree of coronary stenosis, compared with ICA.⁴

The renin–angiotensin system (RAS) has been at the forefront of research aimed at mitigating the infectivity and mortality associated with the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. This stems from the observation that severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the pathogen that causes COVID-19, utilises angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as its receptor to invade host cells. Since emergence of COVID-19, conflicting guidance has been published on the use of medications that may increase ACE2 levels. Specifically, initial reports suggested that ACE inhibitors and angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockers (ARBs) may result in increased virulence of COVID-19 due to elevated ACE2. Thus, discontinuation of these RAS blockers was advised. However, the data on ACE2 expression with use of RAS blockers in humans without COVID-19 are not clear, and for humans with COVID-19 are not yet available. Moreover, discontinuation of these medications may be deleterious in some patients for whom they are prescribed to treat heart failure, hypertension and ischaemic heart disease. For this reason, professional organisations, including the American College of Cardiology, American Heart Association, Heart Failure Society of America and the European Society of Cardiology, have issued statements advising against discontinuation of any RAS-related treatments in patients during the COVID-19 crisis.

The benefit of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) in ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) is undisputed. Clinical trials like DANAMI-2 (DANish Acute Myocardial Infarction 2),^1-3 PRAGUE-2 (Primary Angioplasty in AMI Patients from General Community Hospitals Transported to PTCA Units vs Emergency Thrombolysis),^4,5 STAT (Stenting Versus Thrombolysis in Acute Myocardial Infarction),⁶ AIR PAMI (Air Primary Angioplasty in Myocardial Infarction),⁷ Stent Versus Thrombolysis for Occluded Coronary Arteries in Patients With Acute Myocardial Infarction (STOPAMI)-1,⁸ and STOPAMI-2⁹ have demonstrated better outcomes with primary PCI over fibrinolysis. Other clinical trials^10-14 have demonstrated superiority of PCI over sole medical therapy for non-ST elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI) and unstable angina.

In contrast, there is ambiguity surrounding the benefit of elective PCI in stable coronary disease. The available evidence suggests no prognostic advantage over optimum medical therapy but deeper data scrutiny indicates that this remains uncertain. COURAGE (Clinical Outcomes Utilizing Revascularization and Aggressive Drug Evaluation),¹⁵ BARI 2D (Bypass Angioplasty Revascularization Investigation 2 Diabetes),¹⁶ and ISCHEMIA (Initial Invasive or Conservative Strategy for Stable Coronary Disease)¹⁷ are the main trials that examined this issue, all concluding against the prognostic usefulness of elective PCI. We argue that those studies contained inherent flaws that impacted on their results, thereby rendering their final conclusions unreliable. We suggest an alternative design for a new trial so the question can be answered decisively, once and for all.

“Alone we can do so little, together we can do so much.” Helen Keller

The links between kidney disease and cardiovascular disease have been reported as far back as 1827 with Richard Bright describing the changes in the left ventricle associated with kidney disease, and subsequently, Frederick Akbar Mahomed reporting increased arterial stiffness in patients with Bright’s disease.¹ Over the last two to three decades it has become increasingly apparent that kidney disease is the most important predictor of outcomes in all cardiology diseases and that cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in patients with chronic kidney disease.² In 2008, a systematic approach to the bi-directional interactions of heart and kidney diseases, or cardiorenal syndromes (table 1), was proposed.³ Cardiorenal syndromes can be broadly defined as disorders of the heart and kidney whereby acute or chronic dysfunction in one organ can induce acute or chronic dysfunction in the other.⁴ This was followed by increasing efforts to develop strategies to manage patients with combined heart and kidney dysfunction, as demonstrated by an increasing number of publications on cardiorenal syndromes.⁵

In 2015 one of my patients in the Fourier PCSK9 inhibitor trial asked me if I would like to attend his ‘bespoke’ total knee replacement operation. I said yes and witnessed an amazing procedure.

When the extent of the coronavirus threat became clear, it was an obvious imperative to close down elective catheter lab work for all cases except for patients at the highest level of clinical urgency. The effect of this action is illustrated by the national survey reported by Adlan and colleagues.¹

Above and beyond the immediate, unarguable imperative to limit elective work, a range of other equally immediate challenges relating to patient care were apparent, and generated strong but divergent opinion within the interventional cardiology community. Firstly, the optimal treatment plan for patients presenting with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI)… should primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) remain the default strategy, or should it now be to adopt thrombolysis as a default, as recommended by hastily constructed care pathways in other countries which were affected by COVID-19 earlier than the UK? Secondly, what level of personal protective equipment (PPE) should cardiologists and cath lab staff wear for the cases who did make it to the lab? Finally, how should patients admitted to hospital with severe symptomatic aortic stenosis be treated?

The current President of the United States once stated that “the kidney has a very special place in the heart”; despite the questionable anatomical reference, the truth is that the kidneys and heart are intertwined, affected by common pathophysiological processes and sharing many of the same disease-causing risk factors. Ronco and colleagues have previously classified the complex array of inter-related derangements that simultaneously involve both organs, and this serves as a useful starting point in understanding their important physiological and pathophysiological inter-dependence.¹

Cardiac surgery for adults became widely available around 50 years ago, due mainly to the introduction of relatively safe cardiopulmonary bypass. Initially, mortality rates were quite high, even for relatively young and fit patients, and, therefore, patients and carers focused on this outcome measure. Moreover, it was easy to define and record. Local and national registries developed into databases that allowed comparison of mortality rates and were then further refined with risk modelling.

As the odds of survival after cardiac surgery improved, sicker and older patients were offered cardiac surgery, including octogenarians and extending to nonagenarians.

Clearly, surviving cardiac surgery is very important – but is survival the top priority for the 92-year old after bypass surgery who becomes unable to live independently again and who’s quality of life is insufferable? Should quality of life be the main factor driving therapeutic decisions for the frail and elderly?

The use of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) has transformed the treatment landscape for a number of tumour types over the past decade. Targeting cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4; ipilimumab), programmed cell death protein 1 (PD1; nivolumab, pembrolizumab), and programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1; atezolizumab, avelumab, or durvalumab), as monotherapy or in combination, activates the immune system to recognise and target cancer cells via a T-cell-mediated immune response and can lead to improved survival in the metastatic setting in a number of malignancies, as well as improved recurrence-free survival when utilised in multi-modality radical treatment paradigms in melanoma and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC).^1,2 The systemic activation of T-cells can also lead to auto-immune toxicity, affecting any body system; most commonly skin, gastrointestinal, liver and endocrine toxicities.³

When I first arrived at Whitby Group Practice (WGP) in the middle 80s, my surgery was next to Whitby Hospital Outpatients, where Anthony Bacon conducted his cardiology clinic. Dr Bacon’s article on aortic stenosis was in our previous issue.¹ In this issue, Tariq Enezate and colleagues add to our knowledge of managing this condition.²

Women are underrepresented in cardiology and there is a focus on increasing entry to the specialty and understanding how to overcome challenges. At the British Cardiovascular Society (BCS) annual conference 2019, there was a session dedicated to discussing barriers faced by women in cardiology and progress made in this area, making a ‘call to action’ for change. Representing and supporting women in cardiology is a priority of the BCS and the British Junior Cardiologists’ Association (BJCA). The BJCA has undertaken commendable work exploring challenges and proposing potential solutions: much of the data discussed in this article are from their annual survey or was reported at BCS 2019.

The All-Party Parliamentary Inquiry¹ into heart failure reported in September 2016. The inquiry’s aim was to understand what the key issues were in heart failure and what needs to happen to address deficiencies. Data presented to the inquiry highlighted the significant impact of the role played by the heart failure specialist nurse (HFSN). The evidence-base behind the role of the HFSN has shown that these highly skilled individuals have been able to reduce morbidity, mortality and provide patients and carers with holistic and effective care.² The patients that contributed to the inquiry spoke of the immense support and care that they received from their HFSN. However, further data emphasised that access to a HFSN was inequitable, with anecdotal experience suggesting that services are being decommissioned as a result of reorganisation of services and nurse retirement.

The concept of nurse-led angiography was first introduced in the UK just over two decades ago. This was in response to concerns raised following implementation of the Calman report.¹ The Calman report recommended a structured training programme for cardiology registrars, thus, achieving clinical competence at a faster rate, with a view to filling anticipated consultant vacancies. However, it was presumed that this would negatively impact clinical service delivery. One particular concern was that there would be a reduced number of registrars available and able to perform coronary angiography. There was a fear that this shortfall would lead to reduced throughput within cardiology centres. Boulton et al. described a potential solution to this shortfall: the training of a clinical nurse specialist to perform coronary angiography.² The aim was to teach the nurse-angiographer the technical skills to undertake coronary angiography, with a head-to-head comparison of procedural time, radiation exposure, and complication rate. The results were impressive with the nurse-angiographer demonstrating a numerical reduction in complication rate and fluoroscopy time. These results were similar to those of DeMots et al., who trained a physician assistant in Portland, Oregon to perform coronary angiography with a view to reducing the workload of trainee cardiologists.³

In this issue of the British Journal of Cardiology Yasin et al. describe the implementation of nurse-led angiography at Wycombe Hospital. Although not novel, the findings are certainly interesting. They performed a comparison of nurse-led coronary angiography with registrar-led angiography in an observational study of 200 patients. They examined procedural time, radiation exposure, contrast load and complication rates. Albeit small numbers, they demonstrated that nurse-led angiography was associated with a reduction in radiation and contrast load, concluding that a non-medical operator can be taught the technical skills required to perform coronary angiography safely. However, the observational nature of this study limits the conclusions that can be drawn. Although appropriate at an early level of training, the patients that underwent nurse-led angiography were a highly select ‘safe’ patient group, and, without baseline characteristics, it is not possible to determine if one arm of the study had more comorbidities than the other.

Atrial fibrillation (AF) and diabetes are chronic conditions, which are increasing in prevalence. Stroke is a recognised complication of both conditions and can often be prevented through detection and appropriate intervention. Screening for disease has also improved over the last few decades through a plethora of tools and advances in technology. AF impacts physically, psychologically, socially and economically, and does not always present with symptoms. AF can be detected through electrocardiogram (ECG) monitoring and pulse checks, with high-risk groups typically targeted. When AF is detected, medication to control heart rate and anticoagulation can be started to reduce subsequent risks. AF is underdiagnosed in the community, particularly in the elderly, and the condition lends itself to screening.¹

A review of the evidence for AF screening demonstrates a lack of homogeneity, with different target populations. High-risk groups have varied and include those with hypertension, stroke, myocardial infarction, older age and diabetes. Although the pathophysiological relationship between AF and diabetes is not entirely understood, there is an acceptance that the coexistence imposes greater risk to the patient in terms of comorbidities including stroke.

It is widely known that physical activity provides strong physical, psychological and cognitive health benefits, with over 20 different conditions showing prevention and treatment effects,¹ including mortality reductions comparable with drug treatments in heart failure and stroke.² Economic effects are important, with physical inactivity responsible for approximately 13.4 million disability-adjusted life-years worldwide, over $100 billion in healthcare expenditure in the US,³ and £0.9 billion in the UK,¹ annually. Yet, despite this, around 40% of UK adults report being insufficiently active for health, worse with increasing age and socio-economic deprivation.¹ Objectively measured findings are much worse, only 5% achieve guidelines by accelerometry, compared to 50% by self-report.⁴

Over the last few decades there has been a steady increase in life-expectancy leading to an increase in the ageing population, placing significant demands on health and social care.¹ Among the several healthcare issues that confront older people, frailty has emerged as an important entity, and tackling frailty has assumed greater significance.² There is currently no single agreed definition of frailty, but it is widely accepted as a condition characterised by reduced response to stressors consequent to decline in multiple physiological systems associated with ageing. Prevalence of frailty in community-dwelling older adults is estimated to be around 10–14%, but figures between 4% and 49% have been quoted in various populations.^3,4 Prevalence also varies with age, with around 7% in adults over 65 years, increasing up to 25% in those aged 80 years and above.⁵ There are a number of tools to detect frailty, and the most commonly used tool is the criteria proposed by Fried and colleagues based on data from the Cardiovascular Health Study, which assesses five domains, namely weight loss (≥5% weight loss in the past year), exhaustion (effort required for activities), slow walking speed (>6–7 s per 15 feet), weakness as measured by grip strength and decreased physical activity (kilocalories/week: male <383, female <270), with the presence of three or more of these fulfilling the criteria for frailty.⁵

The paradigm for glucose control in type 2 diabetes has been based on historic and landmark studies demonstrating the unquestionable microvascular benefits of good glycaemic control.^1-3 However, whether better control improves survival and prevents cardiovascular events has been less consistently shown, with one notable study, ACCORD (Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Type 2 Diabetes), showing an increased risk of cardiovascular death with tight control.² Over the past few years, a number of randomised, placebo-controlled, cardiovascular outcome trials (CVOTs) testing novel glucose-lowering agents have demonstrated beneficial effects on mortality and cardiovascular events. This has prompted a change in emphasis away from solely targeting glycaemic control in diabetes, and focusing on reducing cardiovascular events and improving survival.

Twitter is a web-based micro-blogging service in which messages called ‘Tweets’, which may include visual media, are shared with followers of the account. Benefits include continuing education, networking and personal branding. This article examines the current use of Twitter among UK-based cardiologists, and General Medical Council guidance on social media interaction.

UK cardiologists using Twitter were identified by reviewing the Twitter accounts followed by the British Cardiovascular Society using an analysis programme (Twitonomy). An iterative process of tracing accounts followed by UK cardiologists was then undertaken. The last 20 Tweets of the 10 UK cardiologists most followed by other cardiologists were then reviewed for content.

There were 301 UK cardiologists identified. The most common location was London, the sub-specialty intervention, and the majority were consultants. Most had tweeted within the past month, and over 100 times. Content analysis of Tweets revealed 64% were cardiology-related, and 80% related to cardiology/medicine/science.

In conclusion, Twitter has been adopted by a relatively small group of UK cardiologists, but evidence suggests that those who have find it useful. While professionalism and patient confidentiality remain valid concerns, Twitter should be promoted as a location-independent, time-efficient way to network, and keep pace with current research and practice.

Congenital heart disease (CHD) is the most common congenital anomaly, with an estimated prevalence of eight per 1,000 births.¹ However, reliable data on long-term survival for this heterogeneous group of patients are still lacking. Previous population-based studies from the US reported age-standardised mortality rates secondary to CHD of 1.2 per 100,000.² Mortality was highest during infancy (48.1% of all deaths occurred under the age of one year), however, the majority of the remaining deaths occurred outside of childhood, following transition to adult care. Yet, while it is accepted that individuals with CHD may have a higher mortality compared with the general population, the wide spectrum of disease means interpretation of population-based mortality rates for individual lesions is difficult. Additionally, a significant number of studies report only on short-term follow-up, meaning that long-term outcomes are unknown. A previous systematic review reported pooled survival estimates for common CHD lesions, however, it only included studies from hospital-based cohorts with survival estimates calculated from the time of surgical repair.³ It, therefore, does not account for those patients who do not need surgical intervention and may not be representative of all patients with CHD. Knowing the expected mortality rates for CHD is not only important for family counselling, but also in service planning.

On 23 June 2016, the UK public took to the polls and voted to leave the European Union (EU). Since that vote, everyone – from the farming community to the financial sector – has been trying to digest the result and understand what it might mean for them. The science community has been no exception, and with good reason. Scientific research is widely acknowledged as an international endeavour and, until now, EU membership has played a role in this. Science is also a real UK strength – UK institutions, when compared internationally, are ranked second in the world for the quality of their research,¹ and the UK has one of the largest drug development pipelines globally – making it all the more important that we secure a positive future for UK science post-Brexit.

In September last year, the Scottish Cardiac Society (SCS) celebrated its 25th anniversary with a two-day symposium held in Crieff – the same venue where the inaugural meeting took place in 1992.

Physicians use tests to inform decision-making. Whether this is a bedside test using a stethoscope, the seemingly ancient technology of recording an electrocardiogram (ECG), or the most advanced imaging modalities and biochemical panels available – all pursue diagnostic clarity. But, more frequently than we might like to admit, the results do not illuminate a clear path of treatment.

We believe that controlled systemic hypertension should be considered as an important clinical entity (figure 1). We know that cardiovascular risks increase with rising blood pressure, each 2 mmHg increase in systolic blood pressure is associated with a 7% and 10% rise in mortality from ischaemic heart disease and stroke, respectively.¹ However, the converse proposition would also seem to be true. Meta-analyses have found significant reductions in stroke and coronary events associated with blood pressure control,² even in grade 1 hypertension. Furthermore, large studies such as SPRINT (Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial)³ have shown that patients with tighter blood pressure control (mean systolic 121.4 mmHg) have significantly lower rates of major cardiovascular events and heart failure in addition to reduced mortality compared with the standard therapy cohort (mean systolic 136.2 mmHg). With reduction of blood pressure the associated risks are reduced.

Hypertension is a significant problem, both in the general population and among pregnant women, with around one in 10 women experiencing a form of hypertensive disorder during pregnancy.¹ It is the third most common direct cause of maternal mortality worldwide, after haemorrhage and infection,² and is also associated with adverse affects to the baby, including intrauterine growth retardation, premature delivery and respiratory distress syndrome.³

Atrial fibrillation (AF) is known to increase stroke risk and can be stratified clinically by the CHA₂DS₂-VASc scoring system, which then informs recommendations for long-term anticoagulation. Susceptibility to thromboembolism is also increased around the time of catheter ablation of AF. Mechanistically, this is accounted for by endothelial injury, hypercoagulability due to contact of blood with foreign surfaces and altered blood flow after conversion to normal sinus rhythm (figure 1).¹ The risk of stroke persists post-ablation, even in patients with low CHA₂DS₂-VASc scores, as the atria may remain stunned for several weeks post-ablation, and the endothelium takes time to heal. This phenomenon forms the rationale for guidelines currently recommending anticoagulation for two to three months post-ablation.² 

In troubled times, in a sea of uncertainty, it is easy to forget that the UK remains the envy of the world in one aspect at least: the delivery of a national health service (NHS). The structure and organisation of UK general practice; the existence and authority of the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) – with national guidance and local dissemination and structured implementation – remain the envy of the world. While our European neighbours stand by holding each other’s coats as Brexit rumbles on, we forget that each of these nations gazes at our health service and wishes they had one just like ours.

Hypertension remains a significant burden on mortality and morbidity, contributing to increasing costs to healthcare provision globally. There is detailed evidence-based guidance on the diagnosis and treatment of hypertension in the community, however, during the peri-operative period for elective surgery, consideration of an elevated blood pressure remains a conundrum. This is a consequence of paucity of evidence, particularly around specific blood pressure cut-offs deemed to be clinically safe. Postponement of planned surgical procedures due to elevated blood pressure is a common reason to cancel necessary surgery. A sprint audit of 11 West London Hospitals with national audit data indicated that the number of cancellations was 1–3%, equating to approximately 100 cancellations per day in the UK.¹ This suggests that approximately 39,730 patients per year may have had a cancellation of a surgical procedure owing to a finding of pre-operative hypertension.² The Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland (AAGBI) together with the British Hypertension Society (BHS) recognise the need for a nationally agreed policy statement on how to deal with raised blood pressure in the pre-operative period and have jointly published guidelines titled: “The measurement of adult blood pressure and management of hypertension before elective surgery” in the journal Anaesthesia.²

The promotion of exercise as a positive and powerful health intervention has never been more important, when consideration is given to the global epidemic of disease states related to a sedentary lifestyle. However, intensive exercise may be a trigger for sudden cardiac death in individuals harbouring quiescent cardiovascular diseases. Indeed, hereditary and congenital abnormalities of the heart are the most common cause of non-traumatic death during sport in young athletes.¹ 

Following Brexit, like many other people with Irish parents, I started the process of applying for an Irish passport. The Irish embassy website informed me, to my surprise, that I had become an Irish citizen on the day I was born. Despite that status, and despite owning a home in County Kerry, I have to admit I know very little about the Irish healthcare system. In fact, having worked my entire life in English healthcare, I do not fully understand the systems in the other three constituent countries of the UK either. My career has mostly involved both primary and secondary care, so I do understand the issues and difficulties of communication between hospitals and general practitioners (GPs).

Ischaemic heart disease (IHD) is the leading cause of mortality worldwide.¹ It is a debilitating, life-changing illness that can reduce quality of life and life-expectancy. While surgical, percutaneous and optimal medical interventions can significantly improve the clinical course of the disease, our understanding of the biopsychosocial mechanisms promoting survival following an acute IHD event, such as an acute coronary syndrome (ACS), is still limited. 

Over and over we hear the message that healthcare spending is out of control, the National Health Service (NHS) needs to save £20 billion and that is before the baby boom* generation fully enters the most expensive part of their healthcare journey...

The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) has made an important change to Clinical Guideline 64 (CG64)¹ adding the word ‘routinely’ to Recommendation 1.1.3: “Antibiotic prophylaxis against infective endocarditis is not recommended routinely for people undergoing dental procedures”. In a letter about the change,² Sir Andrew Dillon, CEO of NICE, confirmed that “… in individual cases, antibiotic prophylaxis may be appropriate”. 

Compared with other diseases, cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are responsible for the greatest burden of disease both globally¹ and in the UK.² Drugs for CVD and its risk factors have always been represented in the list of international blockbuster drugs. Important research innovations, such as ‘learning health systems’, ‘precision medicine’ and electronic health record (EHR)-based trials, have been led by professionals in the field of cardiology. Cardiovascular scientists from the UK have a long and strong history of research contributions with international impact. Training in cardiology is critical, not only in preparing and mentoring the clinical and academic cardiologists of the future, but also in shaping how the specialty is perceived from inside and outside. Global health and data science are overarching themes that offer new lenses through which to view CVD and cardiology. However, cardiology training in the UK barely pays lip service to either of these issues, when their implications have never been greater or more acute on our specialty. 

The coronary artery calcium (CAC) score is widely believed to be an important tool in determining the risk of developing heart disease. The measurement of this score has traditionally been based on using electrocardiography triggered computed tomography (CT). This confers an advantage over non-gated CT scanning by acquiring images during diastole, which reduces motion artefact and avoids missing areas of coronary artery calcification. Radiologists are, therefore, cautious when reporting CAC on non-gated CT scans due to concerns that it may not be accurate. This means that there is currently no obligation, from a radiology perspective, to report on the degree of CAC on non-gated CT scans. While this has been acceptable for a long time, emerging evidence may force us to change our practise. 

You can earn CPD credits while reviewing this subject in-depth, with our updated and revised angina learning programme (available here)

Refractory angina (RA) is an increasingly common, chronic, debilitating condition, which severely reduces quality of life. It can severely impact on physical, social and psychological wellbeing. RA should be considered in patients with known coronary artery disease, who continue to experience frequent angina-like symptoms, despite surgical or percutaneous revascularisation and optimal medical therapy. Objective evidence of reversible ischaemia should also be demonstrated. Treatment is challenging and often not delivered adequately. Management should ideally be provided by a specialist multi-disciplinary team, but national provision of such services is extremely limited. As a result, patients with RA commonly enter a downward spiral of long-term local review, cycling between the outpatient department and Accident and Emergency (A&E). Consequently, a disproportionately high proportion of healthcare resource is consumed in the management of these patients due to high attendance rates in primary and secondary care, unscheduled hospitalisation, prolonged hospital stays, investigations and polypharmacy. This may be improved by the implementation of more appropriate models of care delivery.

Deaths from congenital heart disease in childhood have fallen 83% in the last 25 years.¹ This dramatic change has led to a significant increase in the numbers of adults with congenital heart disease (ACHD) requiring care, and prevalence is not expected to plateau until 2050.² Even patients with extremely complex pathophysiology are now expected to survive well into adult life, and will have significantly higher rates of utilisation of all hospital services than the general population.^3,4 

I first started using the V scan myself over four years ago, and I have found this hand-held mobile device extremely useful for providing rapid and important diagnostic information at the bedside. The quality of the images of the V scan are usually of sufficiently high quality to make a useful clinical assessment. It is usually possible to make a fair assessment of systolic function of the left ventricle. I have also found that the identification of a dilated right heart has often been very useful for diagnosing massive pulmonary emboli – quite frequently when this diagnosis would not otherwise have been suspected. Valve lesions of significance are invariably pretty obvious and the images are usually adequate to identify vegetations as well. Pericardial effusion is readily detected.

Cardiac implantable electronic devices (CIEDs) have an unquestionable evidence base in patients with reduced left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), already on optimal medical therapy. Implantable cardioverter defibrillators (ICDs) effectively treat ventricular arrhythmias, which account for up to 50% of mortality in patients with reduced LVEF.¹ Likewise in appropriately selected patients, cardiac resynchronisation therapy (CRT) reduces hospitalisation rates, improves symptoms and prolongs life-expectancy.²

The Government is soon to publicly disclose a league table for cardiac surgical units within National Health Service (NHS) England. While this information may be useful and raise questions as to why one unit may be better or worse than another, we are also to be made aware of surgeons who are performing significantly better or worse than expected in terms of risk-adjusted mortality. But are patient deaths following surgery caused exclusively by the surgeon, as surgeon-specific mortality data (SSMD) would imply? And is the surgeon with the lowest operative mortality the best doctor? In my opinion the answer to both these questions is a resounding no.

Life-expectancy is now approaching 90 years, and it won’t stop there. Healthy life-expectancy is also extending, so that the average 60 year old can expect a further 11 years of healthy life. Currently, 35% of the UK population is over 50 years, and growing – and on the whole they are healthier, more skilled, better educated and more dynamic than ever before.

Contemporary guidelines have lowered the threshold for statin use in primary prevention (7.5% risk of a cardiovascular event over 10 years in the USA,¹ 10% risk according to National Institute for Health and Care Excellence [NICE] guidelines in the UK).² Applying these thresholds, the majority of men over 50 years and more than half of women over 60 years will qualify for statin use. Countering the more widespread uptake of statin use in primary prevention advocated by these guidelines are claims, popularised by the lay press and uncritically published in some medical journals,^3,4 that statin use is accompanied by an unacceptable incidence of side effects that adversely compromise lifestyle and which challenge whether the small absolute benefits in some lower risk groups are worth the intolerance of the statin.

When the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) clinical guideline 180 on atrial fibrillation (AF) was published in June 2014, out if its many recommendations, two points seemed paramount. First, it is the patient, and not the clinician, who should make the decision as regards the nature of the treatment they are to receive, whether this be for stroke prevention or for symptom management, and that all those with AF should be offered stroke preventive therapy, with the exception of those without risk factors (CHA₂DS₂-VASc 0 or 1 in females).

A non-fatal myocardial infarction (MI) is an inconvenience; a non-fatal stroke is a catastrophe. While this is a simplification, it draws attention to the fact that most patients with a non-ST-segment elevation MI (NSTEMI) do quite well. Conversely, most patients who suffer a non-fatal stroke suffer a massive change to their lives and their families’ lives, and experience a devastating change in their quality of life.

We share Professor Brady et al.’s opinion¹ that stroke prevention is the single greatest priority in the management of patients with atrial fibrillation (AF). It is reasonable to say that highlighting the inappropriately low levels of anticoagulant uptake as a major public health issue and seeking to improve anticoagulant uptake nationwide was uppermost in the minds of the Guideline Development Group (GDG) members.

The heart beats 120,000 times a day pumping 7,000 litres. Ischaemia or inflammation decimate this workload causing end organ dysfunction. New National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines for acute heart failure (AHF) acknowledge very high early mortality. Of 67,000 acute admissions, 11% die in hospital, 50% are readmitted and 33% are dead within 12 months.^1,2 When cardiogenic shock ensues, prognosis is poor.^3-5 Most patients are elderly but several thousand deaths occur in those under 65 years. Many are salvageable using advanced resuscitation techniques. When the prospectively randomised-controlled trial (RCT) IABP-SHOCK II trial (Intra-Aortic Balloon Pump in Cardiogenic Shock II) revealed the intra-aortic balloon pump (IABP) as ineffective, a New England Journal of Medicine (2012) editorial stated “we must move forward understanding that a condition with 40% mortality at 30 days remains unacceptable”.^3,4 So do the guidelines help with this? 

Cannabis has been employed medicinally and recreationally for thousands of years,^1,2 but it was not until the 1960s that the structure and pharmacology of its primary phytocannabinoid components, cannabidiol (CBD)³ and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)⁴ were identified, and another generation before the nature and function of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) were elucidated (see reference 5 for a comprehensive review). The ECS consists of endogenous cannabinoids, anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), their biosynthetic and catabolic enzymes, and their receptors: CB₁, which is psychoactive, analgesic, neuromodulatory and the most abundant G-protein coupled receptor in the brain, and CB₂, which is non-psychoactive, immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory. The ECS may be thought of as a grand homeostatic regulator of chordate physiological functions, whose roles have been summarised as: “relax, eat, sleep, forget and protect”.⁶ Those actions closely describe the effects of THC and AEA, which are both weak partial agonists at CB₁ and CB₂. 

We know that people with advanced heart failure have unmet supportive and palliative care needs, and the burden of these concerns is comparable with people with cancer.^1–2 Palliative care services in the UK and elsewhere have grown up around oncology services. Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) have confirmed that early integration of palliative care, alongside cancer treatment, improves patient outcomes.^3–7 In contrast, experience of and the evidence base for integration of palliative care alongside heart failure treatment has been slow to develop. However, this is changing. A pilot RCT comparing the addition of a palliative care intervention to usual care for people with advanced heart failure has reported benefit in health-related quality of life, symptom control and health service utilisation (reduced hospital admission)⁸ and several phase three RCTs are ongoing. 

Hypoglycaemia is defined as a lower than normal level of blood glucose, and in patients on glucose-lowering therapy, defined as glucose levels less than 4 mmol/L. In the UK, it is usually classified as ‘mild’, if the episode is self-treated, or ‘severe’, if the individual requires third-party assistance. However, the American Diabetes Association definition of hypoglycaemia is different.¹ They classify hypoglycaemia into five categories. These are shown in table 1. 

Non-adherence to medication for chronic conditions, whether this involves tablets, inhalers, injections or other drug delivery systems, is a serious healthcare problem resulting in poor clinical outcomes and high costs. Here, we review the extent of the problem and the development of a novel evidence-based digital tool to support healthcare professionals (HCPs) in assessing and potentially improving the adherence of chronic patients. 

HCPs are increasingly focusing on developing interventions to address this problem. However, the development of effective adherence interventions is challenging; it involves finding the individual root causes of non-adherence, with the added difficulty of introducing and maintaining behavioural change, and offering tailored solutions that address the specific needs of a particular patient.

Transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) for severe aortic stenosis (AS) has expanded exponentially since it was first described 12 years ago, with around 100,000 procedures performed worldwide.^1,2 Randomised controlled trials have established TAVI as the treatment of choice for severe AS in patients of prohibitive surgical risk and as a viable alternative to surgical aortic valve replacement (SAVR) in high-risk candidates.^3–5 The feasibility and safety of TAVI is further supported by a large body of ‘real-world’ data from multi-centre registries with 93% 30-day and 79% one-year survival in the UK.⁶ Moreover, with growing operator experience and evolving valve technology, TAVI continues to expand beyond those populations originally studied, to include those with severe left ventricular dysfunction and those with failing surgical homografts (so called ‘valve-in-valve’ TAVI), for example.^7,8

Lowering serum cholesterol with statins has consistently shown benefits on cardiovascular outcomes. A 1 mmol/L reduction in low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol is associated with approximately one-third fewer coronary events and one-fifth fewer ischaemic strokes.¹ However, despite these impressive results, there remains a substantial residual risk of cardiovascular (CV) events despite optimal statin therapy.² From pooled analyses of randomised-controlled trials of statins, there is a clear relationship between the achieved level of LDL-cholesterol and the number of coronary heart disease (CHD) events. This observation applies to both primary and secondary prevention trials.³ 

Today’s patient is potentially very different compared with only just a few years ago. So much has changed there is even a new word to describe them, the ‘e-patient’. The ‘e’ can stand for one of many things, equipped, enabled, empowered, engaged or even electronic to cover the internet-savvy approach taken by these patients. Increasing numbers of patients are ever more knowledgeable than in the past and are keen to take control of their own health as much as they can. Many walk in to your consulting room no longer just up to speed on what could be wrong with them, but also with strong opinions on the latest treatments.

The introduction of high-dose statin therapy, more potent statins and the corresponding clinical trial results have led to new treatment targets in secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease (CVD).¹ Most guidelines recommend that for secondary prevention patients require a treatment goal of less than 1.8 mmol/L low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol (LDL-C).² While the use of high-dose atorvastatin therapy is expected to become more widespread now that atorvastatin is available as a generic drug,³ in practice, poor compliance seriously impacts effective treatment.⁴ Only 1.9% of patients in the Treating to New Targets (TNT) study reduced the randomised treatment of 80 mg atorvastatin to 40 mg,¹ whereas, in practice, the mean dose prescribed is 32 mg per day.⁵ For statins, there appears to be a road-block to implementing the results of large randomised-controlled trials (RCTs), similar to the issue of treating hypertension, another ‘silent’ disease. 

In this issue we have some common themes. Four articles relate to the electrocardiogram (ECG) with the eminent Derek Rowlands and Philip Moore making a plea for formal ECG training for all doctors (see pages 47−8). Other articles cover Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome (page 80), torsades de pointes (page 79) and Heather Wetherell continues her series on ECGs for the fainthearted highlighting whether we should trust our ECG machines (pages 62–3). 

Clinical estimation of the jugular venous pressure (JVP) has been at the heart of bedside cardiology for the past 100 years. Observation and description of the waveform used to be central to the derivation of a clinical diagnosis. As technology has rapidly developed over the past 25 years, the bedside method of JVP estimation and description has all but disappeared. But need it be abandoned? The conditions, which today cause an elevated JVP, are very different from those that were prevalent three decades ago. Rheumatic valve disease has all but disappeared in the UK, but heart failure caused by myocardial disease is now much more common. The outlook for patients with unoperated congenital heart disease was poor, but diagnostic and surgical advances in the last 50 years have made survival commonplace. Lifelong surveillance is required in all but the simplest cases. 

The first human electrocardiogram (ECG) was recorded over 125 years ago. Despite the development of many new investigative techniques, the ECG remains an essential part of any cardiovascular assessment, whether in relation to acute or chronic health issues, to insurance assessment or to the assessment of risk in critical occupations or in sports professionals. In terms of interpretation, it is fair to say that the ECG occupies a unique and unsatisfactory position. Unlike pathology specimens and the images produced by modern techniques (both of which are always formally reported by trained and tested professionals), and unlike biochemical data (which are usually presented to the user clinician with the normal values displayed), ECGs are most commonly reported and acted upon by front-line users who have had no formal training in, and no assessment of competency in, ECG interpretation, and who generally proceed with no clear guidelines about the limits of normality or the precise criteria for specific abnormalities. There is no formal, national programme for training in ECG interpretation, or for the assessment of ECG interpretation skills. Inevitably, therefore, the standard of ECG interpretation (both in general practice and also in hospital) is highly variable, and is often extremely poor.

National life-expectancy is steadily rising with the number of those aged 85 years or over doubling from 1985 to 2010,¹ and ever more elderly patients presenting to cardiology. Age is a potent risk factor for mortality after acute coronary syndrome (ACS),² and older patients with angina present with more severe symptoms and prognostically significant coronary anatomy.³ Age has a very powerful influence on risk stratification tools such as GRACE (Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events), and National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidance supports early invasive investigation and management for high-scoring patients.⁴ Diagnostic coronary angiography (DCA) is crucial to assessing the cross-spectrum of coronary disease presentation. Despite this, elderly patients are less likely to be treated in accordance with best practice after presenting with ACS,^5,6 the so-called ‘risk paradox’. Concern about the safety and efficacy of DCA and percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) in the more elderly population seems to underpin this behaviour. 

Despite the high and growing prevalence of hypertension worldwide, and the increasing attention focused on the challenge of resistant hypertension (RHTN), it is somewhat extraordinary to note the lack of data attesting to the epidemiology and management of RHTN at the present time. Few studies have described the incidence and prevalence of this condition, yet, it is very clear that, once diagnosed with RHTN, patients are at strikingly elevated risk of cardiovascular events, and thus clearly defined treatment strategies are urgently required.1 Quite remarkably, when reviewing the evidence base in RHTN for the recent National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) hypertension guidelines, the authors could find just one head-to-head randomised-controlled trial in this patient cohort, and only six retrospective cohort studies, with the largest being a post hoc analysis of the Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial (ASCOT) study, where the use of spironolactone as a fourth-line agent was associated with blood pressure (BP) reductions of ~20/10 mmHg.2 Currently, we are hopeful that trials, such as the British Hypertension Society (BHS)-led Pathway 2 study (UKCRN.org.uk ID 4500) and the Resistant Hypertension Optimal Treatment (ReHOT) study (Clinicaltrials.gov ID NCT01643434), will help improve our drug therapy of RHTN. Nonetheless, it should be recognised that, while pharmacotherapy of hypertension is proven (at least up until the point of RHTN), issues with physician inertia, poor concordance and drug intolerance continue to undermine our efforts to get patients to target BP. 

Muslims worldwide represent a diverse and heterogeneous population varying widely in terms of geographical distribution, language, lifestyle, habits, customs, tradition, dietary habits and, above all, socio-economic status, which has a major influence on all other factors.¹

As UK cardiologists, we might be forgiven for assuming acceptance of cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR). The past decade has seen CMR in the UK change from an ancillary research/specialist patient populations tool to an evidence-based imaging modality for use in all spheres of cardiovascular disease. Within the wider medical community and overseas, however, the advantages of CMR remain opaque.

Chronic heart failure (CHF) affects 900,000 people in the UK and consumes almost 2% of the National Health Service (NHS) budget. These figures are set to rise as the prognosis of coronary artery disease improves and the population ages. Heart failure currently accounts for approximately 5% of all emergency medical admissions to hospital, and over the next 25 years the proportion will rise by 50% – largely due to an older population.¹ 

The National GPSI Cardiology Forum was established in 2005 and, despite the demise of the Primary Care Cardiovascular Society (PCCS) to which it was affiliated, it has remained active in the national cardiovascular arena. At a recent meeting at Warwick University, a decision was made to change our name to CVGP (CardioVascular General Practitioners: the Society for GPs with an interest in Cardiovascular Medicine). This name change does not alter our stated aims or direction of travel, but acknowledges the need to embrace all GPs involved in cardiovascular care rather than just GPs with a special interest (GPSIs) in cardiology. We believe this is essential in the evolving NHS clinical commissioning environment. 

When reference is made to sleep-disordered breathing (SDB), obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) often springs to mind. Indeed, much research has been centred on identifying individuals at risk of OSA, determining the most effective form of therapy and unearthing the manner by which OSA increases cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. As a result, factors such as central adiposity, neck circumference and age have been identified as OSA risk factors, and continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) has become a well-recognised treatment for OSA. Studies also indicate that OSA may increase CVD risk via mechanisms involving tissue hypoxia and increased sympathetic nervous system activity, and that CPAP therapy counteracts these mechanisms.¹ The case for the OSA–CVD link has been further strengthened by additional research showing that CPAP can reduce elevated blood pressure and reduce the risk of cardiovascular events, such as heart attack and stroke.^2,3

The Cardiology Curriculum¹ describes the specialty of cardiology as a subspecialisation for physicians who were predominantly concerned with the care of patients with cardiovascular disorders. It goes on to state that care of such patients embraces a wide range of clinical activities and cardiologists need a broad view of the cardiovascular needs of individual patients and the communities in which they live, including an understanding of any prevailing health inequalities. This requires knowledge of not only the diagnostic and therapeutic modalities available, but also an appreciation of the importance of the epidemiology and potential for prevention of cardiovascular disease. Although cardiology is generally stereotyped as a highly practical skill-based medical specialty, with invasive and interventional skills as high-profile components of the workload, competence in other areas of practice such as cardiovascular clinical pharmacology and non-invasive imaging are equally important.

Twenty years ago, when we launched the British Journal of Cardiology (BJC) our intention was to produce a peer-reviewed journal, which linked cardiologists and general practitioners (GPs) with an interest in cardiovascular medicine. We have not waivered and, indeed, have grown to be a unique publication widely read across both primary and secondary care, leading opinion for 20 years.

Cardiovascular disease is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality among the elderly,^1,2 and interventional cardiologists are well aware that they are treating an increasing number of very elderly patients. It is clearly good news that life-expectancy is increasing and that more patients remain alive and active well into their eighties and nineties. While there is no obvious pathophysiological rationale for elderly patients to have a different therapeutic response to cardiovascular treatments there are important issues to consider. 

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors/angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) and beta blockers improve outcomes in patients with chronic heart failure secondary to left ventricular systolic dysfunction. 

The 2012 British Junior Cardiologists Association (BJCA) survey of cardiology trainees gives an important insight into what is happening in cardiology training in the UK.^1,2 Conducted six times since 2004, it was most recently performed in 2009. The authors should be congratulated on the effort that has clearly been involved. Several important issues emerge from these data, which, if the survey is truly representative of all UK trainees, necessitate some radical thinking. The issues that I shall discuss are: working hours and the role of general medicine, imaging training, and the percentage of female trainees. 

The British Hypertension Society (BHS) was established in 1980 by a group of physicians interested primarily in research. Over the years it has broadened its remit to encompass teaching and the development of best practice in hypertension management and cardiovascular risk prevention. Originally membership was restricted to people actively involved in research, but recently we have opened our doors to welcome other healthcare professionals (resident in the UK and Ireland) who are interested in the wider field. The majority of hypertension management in the UK is carried out by primary care physicians and nurses with increasing input from pharmacists. Many referrals to secondary care involve cardiologists. These practitioners are not sufficiently represented in the Society and, hence, we are keen for primary care health workers and cardiologists to apply for membership.

The hearts of the medical, sporting and lay communities were captured by the public cardiac arrest of 24-year-old midfielder Fabrice Muamba, during a football match in March 2012. His case was exceptional in that he survived because expert help was at hand immediately but, sadly, most young victims of sudden cardiac arrest do not live to hospitalisation. There are approximately 60,000 cases of sudden cardiac death in the UK each year,¹ the majority of which occur in older adults and are predominantly attributed to ischaemic heart disease or heart failure. In contrast, there are around 600 sudden deaths per annum in young people affected by inherited structural and electrical disorders of the heart, notably the cardiomyopathies and ion channelopathies.² 

In this issue (see pages 126–33), Paul Durrington has written an excellent review of one of the most interesting conundrums in current clinical lipidology – the putative role of cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors. 

Following publication of recent National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) guidance for the management of chronic heart failure (CHF), which includes heart failure rehabilitation incorporating exercise, there has been a substantial amount of rhetoric and debate on how to deliver this specific intervention.¹ In theory, amelioration of heart failure patients into existing cardiac rehabilitation (CR) exercise programmes appears the most feasible option in practice, however, this may prove to be somewhat problematic.

In-hospital mortality from infective endocarditis remains high, ranging from 9.6 to 26%, and relates to many factors including associated co-morbidities (including previous valve replacement), the complications of endocarditis present, the micro-organism involved, and a number of echocardiographic features.¹ Currently, echocardiography remains the mainstay of imaging for diagnosis and evaluation of complications, monitoring of response to therapy, intra-operative evaluation (where relevant), and follow-up.^1,2 Indeed, three echocardiographic features are considered major criteria in the diagnosis: vegetation, abscess and new dehiscence of a prosthetic valve. Although the limitations of echocardiography are well recognised, the use of other imaging modalities for evaluation of endocarditis remains limited. Indeed, 2009 European Society of Cardiology (ESC) guidelines state that “Other advances in imaging technology have had minimal impact in routine clinical practice … alternative modes of imaging (computed tomography [CT], magnetic resonance imaging [MRI], positron emission tomography [PET], and radionuclide scanning) have yet to be evaluated in infective endocarditis”.¹ 

The diagnosis and management of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) has undergone fundamental change since the condition was first described more than 50 years ago by Donald Teare,¹ a forensic pathologist, and Michael Davis, an academic pathologist.

Modern medical practice calls for an evidence-based approach. The best medicine is, therefore, built on a foundation of the best evidence. The best evidence, in turn, comes from the best research. When it comes to the use of drug therapy this is provided by the most scientifically robust and ethically sound clinical trials.  The history of clinical trials has clearly shown us that while they are essential for the progress of medical practice; their conduct may also be harmful to participants.1 A lack of ethical conduct and failure to uphold basic human rights have prompted the introduction of several codes of practice to guide and constrain the activities of investigators. Our patients require protection and never more so than in the context of clinical research.

The prevalence of cocaine use in the UK has been steadily increasing over recent years, with 6.6% of 16–24 year olds admitting to regular use.¹ United Nation figures from 2009 suggest that there are more than one million current cocaine users in the UK.² In the USA, there are an estimated 5.8 million users.^3,4 This high level of use is associated with considerable healthcare implications and costs. The most common cocaine-related presentation is chest pain, which is responsible for approximately 64,000 assessments per year in the USA, costing $83 million.^3,4 If we extrapolate those figures to the UK, there would be approximately 11,000 assessments per year for cocaine-related chest pain. While this is perhaps a statistically dubious analysis of the figures, it does give us some idea of the scale of the problem.

He who knows syphilis knows medicine” said Father of Modern Medicine, Sir William Osler, at the turn of the 20th Century. So common was syphilis in days gone by, all physicians were attuned to its myriad clinical presentations. Indeed, the 19th century saw the development of an entire medical subspecialty – syphilology – devoted to the study of the great imitator, Treponema pallidum. But syphilis to many is a disease of old, consigned to the annals of history by infusions of mercury, arsenical magic bullets, and finally dealt a fatal blow by the advent of penicillin. The case report of a contemporary presentation of syphilitic aortitis by Aman et al. (see pages 94−6) presented in this issue is fascinating, but it seems most remarkable as a strange relic, a throwback to an era of medicine past. Or perhaps it is not. The UK has seen an explosion in venereal syphilis in the first decade of the 21st century. There were 3,762 diagnoses of early stage ‘infectious syphilis’ (comprising primary, secondary and early latent syphilis) made in 2007, more than in any other year since 1950. The trend has continued unabated with a similar figure seen in 2008 (2009 data are awaited). Between 1997 and 2007, annual diagnoses of infectious syphilis rose more than 1,200% (figure 1).(1)

As Chairman of HEART UK’s Familial Hypercholesterolaemia (FH) Guideline Implementation Team, I am well aware that little has been done in England to implement the recommendations of the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) guideline for the identification and management of FH (CG71), published in August 2008. This is, of course, in stark contrast to developments in Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, where my colleagues have made significant progress in identifying and treating patients with FH. However, even I was surprised by the findings of a study, commissioned by HEART UK – The Cholesterol Charity, in which freedom of information (FOI) requests were sent to primary care trusts (PCTs) in England, requesting information about their progress to date.

The National Health Service (NHS) Health Check is a national screening programme to detect individuals in the 40–74-year-old age range who are at risk of developing cardiovascular disease (CVD). It was in January 2008 that, the then Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, announced the Government’s intention to shift the focus of the NHS towards empowering patients and preventing illness. As part of this, he set out to dramatically extend the availability of, what he called, ‘predict and prevent’ checks. Mr Brown’s vision was that these checks would give people information about their health, support lifestyle changes and, in some cases, offer earlier interventions. So, primary care trusts (PCTs) were required since late 2009 to commission services to deliver NHS Health Checks to 40–74 year olds, on a five-year, call–recall, cycle. The programme is specifically to detect risk and is not designed to cover those who are known to have an existing cardiovascular or related condition, such as diabetes or chronic kidney disease. Individuals participating in the checks will be given an assessment of the level of their own risk of developing CVD within the next 10 years and will be offered appropriate advice and interventions. For those with the least risk, this may be a simple discussion around healthy lifestyles. For moderate risk, the recommendations may include brief interventions around smoking, physical activity or referral to lifestyle support services. Those most at risk may require clinical interventions such as a statin prescription or referral to a specialist service. It is anticipated that the NHS Health Checks programme will be fully operational by April 2012.

In their article, Ngaage and colleagues (see pages 28–32) discuss the influence of an ageing population on care and clinical resource utilisation in cardiac surgery in the UK. They reviewed approximately 7,000 patients who underwent coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery and valvular heart surgery over a 10-year period. Altogether, 38% of their patients were older than 70 years. They showed that older patients had a higher need for peri-operative interventions and requirements, thereby incurring extra resources and expenses. Advancing age in the Western world has led to a significant increase in the number of elderly patients requiring cardiovascular care and cardiac surgery.1 In deciding which patients need surgery, the benefits of both traditional and minimally invasive cardiac operations have to be balanced against the risks of these procedures, especially in the elderly population. The main risks of cardiac surgery affecting the elderly are transient ischaemic attack, stroke and cognitive decline, which can be as high as 13%, and renal failure, with 7% requiring renal replacement therapy.2 Furthermore, mobilisation, rehabilitation and returning home after surgery are significant considerations when treating the elderly. It would be a failure of cardiac surgery if the patient could not be rehabilitated and be able to assume a good lifestyle following their operation.

In March 2010 the National Institute of Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) published guidance on the management of patients with chest pain of recent onset.1 The guidance is based upon contemporary literature and provides an evidence-based approach to the diagnosis of patients with acute and stable chest pain.

Following recent publication of the 2010 European Society of Cardiology (ESC) guidelines for atrial fibrillation (AF) it is timely the BJC publish an article by Gunawardena et al. (see pages 271-6) describing a single centre cohort analysis of their AF ablation procedures.¹

Recent technical developments in multi-detector computed tomography (MDCT), and particularly the introduction of 64-slice MDCT, have made the non-invasive imaging of coronary arteries a clinical reality. Beta blockers are used to decrease the heart rate to 65 bpm, sublingual glyceryl trinitrate (GTN) can be used to dilate the coronary arteries, and the patient is only required to breath-hold for a few seconds. Fast or irregular heart rates, extensive calcium blooming artefacts and patients with high body mass index (BMI) are the only limiting factors. The temporal resolution is faster with dual-source MDCT, reducing the need for beta blockers, and the 320-slice MDCT can image the heart in one heart beat.

As from May 2009 the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) have removed transmyocardial laser revascularisation (TMLR) from the list of treatments for refractory angina.¹ From their analysis of efficacy they found no evidence of improved myocardial perfusion, ejection fraction or prognosis. There was also no evidence for improvement in exercise tolerance or Canadian Cardiovascular Society (CCS) class when compared with other treatments. Furthermore, looking at the data on safety, randomised controlled trials showed evidence of increased myocardial infarction in the TMLR-treated patient group, as well as evidence of left ventricular perforation. 

There have been reservations regarding this technique for many years and it would seem to be a valid decision on behalf of the specialist advisers. It seems appropriate, therefore, to look at how to best treat this complex group of patients. 

The prevalence of atrial fibrillation (AF) in the UK alone is estimated to be 1% of the population (approximately 610,000) and rises with age from 1.5% in people in their 60s to more than 10% in those over 90 years old. It is also more common in males than females. Because prevalence increases with age, it is expected to increase over time as the proportion of people aged 65 and over is projected to increase from 16% of the UK population in 2006 to 22% by 2030.¹ AF is the most common supraventricular arrhythmia; it is predicted that catheter ablation (CA) as a management strategy will be one of the most commonly performed electrophysiological procedures in the next decade.

Over recent years data have accumulated suggesting that sinus rhythm (SR) is associated with increased survival.² Whether this association of SR with improved survival is actually a causal relationship is yet to be proven. CA has proven to be an effective curative treatment particularly when used for paroxysmal AF.³ 

If we consider gastro-oesopageal endoscopy as a similar procedure to transoesophageal echocardiography (TEE) then we might be alarmed at the 30-day mortality of 1:2,000 reported by Quine et al.¹ I am not a practitioner of either of those arts, but I am putting on my anaesthetist cap to respond to the article by Mankia et al. discussing intravenous opiate/benzodiazepine sedation in this issue of the journal (see pages 125-7). The endoscopy death rate is especially concerning if you compare the fact that anaesthesia was considered to have been totally responsible for death in less than 1:10,000 operations in the UK.² Mankia et al. quite rightly suggest that there should be guidelines concerning the safe use of intravenous sedation in TEE, and should be congratulated for highlighting this matter. I would suggest that their gastrointestinal endoscopy colleagues have a lot of experience on which to draw from.

Cardiovascular disease is the biggest killer in the UK causing 198,000 deaths per year, and stroke is the most common cause of disability in women. Can individuals at increased risk be identified and can heart attacks and strokes be prevented?

In this issue, Sandler’s paper (see pages 86–8) reinforces the growing body of evidence that should lead to the demise of the routine use of direct current cardioversion (DCCV) for patients with atrial fibrillation. This interesting paper highlights several issues surrounding DCCV within the context of a service re-design within a district general hospital. Despite a state-of-the-art service, the success of DCCV was limited, with sinus rhythm maintained in between the stated 20% (22/110) or even optimistically 40% (22/55) at around one year. I would suggest that this is unacceptable and that we would not allow any other procedure with significant associated morbidity to be undertaken with such a low chance of succeeding.

Cardiac auscultation is a critical part of the clinical examination. In antiquity physicians listened to heart sounds directly by placing their ear to the chest. In 1816 Laennec was asked to examine a young ‘corpulent’ woman in Paris, out of embarrassment he rolled a sheaf of paper into a cylinder to listen to her heart sounds, the stethoscope was invented. Initially, Laennec applied his invention to study cardiopulmonary diseases where he correlated bedside findings with autopsy results.(1

The atrioventricular (AV) conducting system of the mammalian heart was described a hundred years ago. Albert Hyman, a cardiologist working in New York City performed studies on the stopped heart. On injection of drugs into the right atrium, usually including adrenaline, the stopped heart continued beating.

Although patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) share key pathophysiological mechanisms, they present with diverse clinical, electrocardiographic and enzyme characteristics and experience a wide range of serious cardiovascular outcomes.

Cardiac rehabilitation (CR) is the process by which patients with cardiac disease, in partnership with a multi-disciplinary team of health professionals, are encouraged and supported to achieve and maintain optimal physical and psychosocial health.”1 The fundamental interventions required for CR should provide the cornerstone of lifelong management in cardiovascular disease – for those who present with the numerous manifestations, those identified as being at increased risk, and, indeed, all of us.

The Myocardial Ischaemia National Audit Project (MINAP) represents one of the largest observational databases of acute coronary syndrome (ACS) events.1-3 Since its inception in 2000, it has accumulated rich data (including timing and method of admission, emergency and subsequent treatments, and long-term mortality data through linkage to the UK Statistics Authority) for over 650,000 ACS events from all acute hospitals (n=228) in England and Wales (figure 1). Initially designed to monitor standards set by the National Service Framework for Coronary Heart Disease4 with the generation of annual reports of hospital-level ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) performance,5 the provision of contemporary online performance analyses has facilitated improvements in the care of ACS patients.6 Moreover, MINAP is more than a resource for the purposes of audit, it is also a key research tool for the evaluation of cardiovascular care and outcomes.7,8 Although it is primarily focused on clinical need, its research potential has been recognised by several grant-giving bodies, and a committee (the MINAP Academic Group [MAG]) dedicated to overseeing MINAP research has been established.3 The Clinical Performance Group (University of Leeds), a multi-disciplinary team comprising clinical cardiologists, health service researchers and health economists draws on MINAP data to investigate clinical care at multiple levels (patient, population, process and healthcare professional).

The British Society of Rheumatology have published guidelines on the management of rheumatoid arthritis, which call for an increased awareness of rheumatoid arthritis as an independent risk factor for ischaemic heart disease.(1) This increased cardiovascular risk is related to the severity and duration of inflammation, and the magnitude of additional cardiovascular risk in severe rheumatoid arthritis has been compared with that seen in diabetes mellitus.(1) Life expectancy is reduced due to an excess of cardiovascular death, with increased standardised mortality ratios ranging from 1.28 to 3.00 in rheumatoid patients compared with the general population.(2) Women with rheumatoid arthritis are twice as likely to suffer from a myocardial infarction as those without.(2) There is also an increased risk of congestive cardiac failure,2 asymptomatic coronary heart disease and sudden cardiac death.(3)

“My interest is in the future because I am going to spend the rest of my life there.” – C F Kettering Cardiovascular diseases are a massive public health problem in both the developed and developing world. UK statistics show, according to death certification, half a million people die annually, about 180,000 due to circulatory disease, 130,000 from neoplastic disease and 70,000 due to respiratory disease. With advancing age, the likelihood of dying from circulatory disease increases. So let’s face it, most of us are going to die from clogged blood vessels, most commonly some manifestation of coronary disease. Add in the millions who will live with symptoms of coronary disease and the numbers stack up even higher. In 1948, the US public health service financed an epidemiological study on a previously unprecedented scale to investigate why millions of Americans were dying prematurely from heart disease. The result was the Framingham study, from which we have a pretty good idea of what increases our chances of developing coronary disease – smoking, cholesterol, blood pressure and diabetes – well recognised now but unknown until 40 years ago. In fact, Framingham introduced cardiovascular risk and cardiovascular risk factors into the medical vocabulary in a landmark paper in 1961. A risk scoring system soon followed. Despite listing several important caveats, the Framingham risk score was widely adopted around the world, largely because of its novelty, simplicity and practicality. Some four decades later, there is mounting criticism of the Framingham risk score. First, because it does not predict cardiovascular risk ‘accurately’ enough – when applied to different populations, the score tends to overestimate risk in low-risk populations and underestimate risk in high-risk populations. Second, because it does not take into account other factors such as family history or socio-economic status. New risk scoring systems have been proposed, each claiming to predict, with greater accuracy than Framingham, the risk of a future cardiovascular event, at least in the population in which each was developed. Will ‘better’ scoring systems help us manage our patients better? “A good forecaster is not smarter than everyone else – he merely has his ignorance better organised.”

For patients with established coronary artery disease, lifestyle changes such as dietary modification, smoking cessation, stress management and regular exercise, can help to reduce, or perhaps stop, the progression of their cardiovascular disease, reduce their chance of having another cardiac event, and improve their quality of life. Cardiac rehabilitation can accelerate physical and psychological recovery and reduce mortality after acute cardiac events by 10–25% according to systematic reviews of randomised trials.1-3 Cardiac rehabilitation programmes can also reduce risk factors, improve health-related quality of life, and increase the likelihood of return to work.3-6 Despite this evidence, however, typically fewer than 35% of eligible patients take part in cardiac rehabilitation worldwide, with a recent UK audit reporting figures in line with this.(7-10)

In this issue, Pfeffer et al. discuss the impact of anthracycline-related cardiotoxicity and strategies for its treatment and prevention (see pages 85–9). Anthracyclines are not the only widely used class of cytotoxics with the potential to cause cardiotoxicity, but they are the most studied and the effects are well described. The antimetabolites 5-fluorouracil (5FU) and capecitabine, an oral pro-drug of 5FU, can cause an acute and chronic cardiotoxicity1,2 while vinorelbine, a vinca alkaloid, can cause angina.3 Paclitaxel, a taxane, has been shown to augment the cardiac side effects of doxorubicin, an anthracycline.4,5 The potential for cardiotoxicity is therefore, a major consideration when determining appropriate treatment for patients.

For over 50 years cardiologists have routinely recommended antibiotic prophylaxis (ABP) at the time of dental procedures in patients deemed to be at risk of infective endocarditis (IE). Reviews and editorials all acknowledged the lack of robust evidence for effectiveness of ABP and from time to time the literature has been reviewed and expert opinion synthesised into guidelines. In the UK, the 2004 Joint Royal College of Physicians/British Cardiac Society guideline has been widely followed.1 In 2006 new guidelines were published by the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (BSAC).2 These guidelines were important because this committee’s recommendations are incorporated into the British National Formulary. The BSAC guidelines recommended withdrawal of ABP for the majority of patients limiting them to individuals perceived to be at the highest risk of IE (e.g. a prior history of IE, prosthetic cardiac valves and surgically constructed pulmonary or system shunts/conduits). These guidelines were welcomed by the majority of dentists and microbiologists as a step in the right direction. However, many cardiologists, who had seen first-hand the horrors of IE, did not wish to see the rejection of a therapy that was thought by most to be effective and harmless. The lack of agreement between the medical and dental professions resulted in the issue being referred to the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) for an authoritative statement.3

The field of clinical medicine is littered with the bodies of sacred cows. Recent examples include the demise of vagotomy and pyloroplasty as a standard treatment for peptic ulcers and the absolute contraindication of beta blockers in the treatment of heart failure. I would like to suggest that the next sacred cow to be dispensed with is the routine use of electrical cardioversion in the treatment of atrial fibrillation, despite its inclusion as a therapeutic option in the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) atrial fibrillation guidelines.1 Direct electrical cardioversion has been a mainstay of therapy for the treatment of atrial fibrillation for many years. The theory underpinning its utilisation has some face validity, that by restoring sinus rhythm any problems associated with atrial fibrillation will be ameliorated. This, however, does not take into account the underlying cause of the arrhythmia, with the majority of atrial fibrillation caused by ischaemic heart disease. It is only relatively recently, however, that evidence for the ineffectiveness of cardioversion has begun to emerge. Paradoxically this evidence has derived from trials designed to prove the effectiveness of the procedure.

The announcement that Akira Endo has won the 2008 Lasker-DeBakey Clinical Medical Research Award is a fitting tribute to the man who discovered the first statin. The remarkable ability of these compounds to lower cholesterol has revolutionised medical practice, boosted the profits of the pharmaceutical industry and improved the health of millions. The story of this discovery illustrates how Endo’s single-minded pursuit of an idea changed the course of history, an achievement that has now been recognised by his peers in the scientific community.

Postgraduate medical training has undergone extensive reform in recent times. This article outlines the current state of affairs and possible future developments in cardiology specialist training.

When any doctor or nurse refers to a colleague they should automatically ask themselves: is this referral necessary and will it benefit the patient? Referral should never be an automatic choice and the circumstances may dictate a different option.

The UK has witnessed a seismic shift in the delivery of healthcare to patients with coronary heart disease, but there is still a lot to be done. Promoted by the National Service Framework (NSF), and supported by a £775 million capital programme from the Department of Health and Lottery Funding (£122 million towards new cath labs), waiting lists have been slashed and patients are able to be investigated and treated nearer to home.1 In its annual audit reports for 2001, the British Cardiovascular Intervention Society (BCIS) reported on activity in 64 percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) centres and 62 centres performing diagnostic invasive procedures only. The report for 2006 included data from 91 PCI centres and another 90 diagnostic-only centres.2 In this issue of the British Journal of Cardiology, Kelly and colleagues from Bournemouth provide the results of their initial experience in providing PCI to their local and surrounding communities (pages 244–7).3 Over a short period of time, activity has grown rapidly and they now perform over 1,500 PCIs per year. The centre is to be congratulated on the way it has established its PCI service because the programme was developed with some serious business planning, supported by its management, the local commissioners, its traditional tertiary centre, and the Strategic Health Authority. They sought and were given approval by BCIS, they ensured arrangements were made for surgical cover, and for the review of angiograms with off-site surgeons, and they committed themselves to appropriate clinical audit (collecting information on all patients undergoing treatment and downloading this to the Central Cardiac Audit Database [CCAD]).4 In line with the current BCIS policy, they have also evaluated their results against the predictive score generated by the North West Quality Improvement Programme (NWQIP), which has been both internally and externally validated.5,6 Their early results demonstrate complication rates within predicted limits. This is an example of a unit that not only has delivered considerable clinical activity but has also provided evidence of the quality of the service provided. Their reported experience raises two issues; the first relates to strategic thinking about how revascularisation is delivered on a regional basis and the second to measures of quality.

Amyloid heart disease is comparatively rare, frequently missed and often mimics other clinical conditions. It often carries a very poor prognosis. Nonetheless, healthcare professionals should be aware of ‘the amyloidoses’ and advances in their diagnosis and treatment.

Clinicians find heart failure difficult to diagnose.1 Confirmation of left ventricular dysfunction (systolic or diastolic) is only possible by cardiac imaging. Recent European Society of Cardiology guidelines and National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) guidance have suggested that B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP)/N-terminal prohormone BNP (NT proBNP) and electrocardiography be used as a diagnostic tool that supports general practitioners (GPs) in their assessment of patients with suspected heart failure.2,3 Despite inclusion in guidelines2,3 uptake of BNP or NT proBNP use has been slow in the National Health Service (NHS).

Managing patients with the various manifestations of coronary heart disease keeps cardiologists busy, whether in out-patients, the cardiac catheter lab or the coronary care unit. There is no doubt that the specialty of cardiology has benefited from drug regulation imposed and supervised by the Food and Drugs Administration and the Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency – commercial sponsorship may have funded and, to some extent driven, the use of the ‘gold-standard’ double-blind, placebo-controlled, multi-centre clinical trial to test potentially useful drugs, but at least the evidence base for clinical practice is well-founded as a result. After hundreds of thousands of patient-years of phase III clinical trials and of post-marketing surveillance to establish what works and what doesn’t, the development of ‘patient care pathways’ and ‘best practice’ guidelines, clinicians may have thought they knew how to treat patients with angina. Nevertheless, patients are voicing their concerns over the impact of coronary heart disease on daily life and the inadequacy of their treatment, according to a survey conducted by Izzat and Knight and reported in this issue of the British Journal of Cardiology (pages 191–4). This patient survey is a reminder that clinicians’ expectations of delivering improved mortality and morbidity and relief of symptoms does not completely coincide with patients’ expectations of an improved quality of life and perfect symptom control. It is not clear if compliance was poor or whether the patient population was representative of the generality of patients, but the survey suggests that many were very dissatisfied with the treatment of angina. The most common complaints were the adverse impact of angina and associated drug treatment on the quality of daily life (especially sex life); symptoms occurring at least once per week, despite most having had surgical intervention; the adverse effect of medication, especially beta blockers causing symptoms of tiredness, lethargy, nightmares and impotence; and beta blockers prescribed despite concomitant chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

The needs and aspirations of the UK’s junior doctors have not been far from the headlines since the Medical Training Application Service (MTAS)/Modernising Medical Careers (MMC) debacle unfolded. The results of this year’s British Junior Cardiologists Association (BJCA) survey of cardiology trainees therefore make fascinating reading (pages 134–36). Our trainees are clearly both well informed and politically astute. Their views certainly deserve careful attention and at least four important issues emerge from this year’s survey.

A key component of the UK General Medical Services (GMS) contract, which was implemented in April 2004, is the quality and outcomes framework (QOF).

Practice-based commissioning (PBC) achieved universal coverage by the end of 2006 according to the Department of Health (DoH).1 So here we are well in to 2008 and I doubt if many cardiologists have seen any impact from PBC, and the latest DoH survey on PBC would suggest that the majority of general practitioners (GPs) feel that the scheme has yet to get off the ground. Having said that, 36% of practices say they have commissioned at least one new service through PBC.2 So will it die a natural death, or will it really make a difference to the way healthcare is commissioned? The DoH are saying that PBC remains central to world class commissioning, and the Conservative party are saying that, if they get in to power, they will give GPs real budgets. If we are to have payment by results, in a cash-limited service, we must have the balance of PBC. PBC aligns clinical and financial responsibility at the point of referral. It should also allow GPs to find new ways to deliver care closer to the patient, offer them real choice and drive up the quality of the care their patients receive. I cannot, therefore, see a future without some form of PBC and so it would make sense to come to terms with it and to make it work.

So now we know ... drug-eluting stents (DES) are not to vanish from our armoury at the whim of a National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) appraisal committee containing not a single specialist in interventional cardiology. When the provisional guidance report was published in the fourth quarter of last year, stating “Drug-eluting stents are not recommended for use in PCI in patients with coronary artery disease” as point 1, paragraph 1, it was really difficult to comprehend how the committee had come to this ridiculous conclusion. Most interventional cardiologists can understand that there is a need to audit the use of novel technologies in order to ensure the maintenance of patient safety and protect Department of Health (DoH) expenditure. Not only do we understand it, but we are committed to such a process. The preliminary judgement from this NICE group, however, was in my opinion, a significant low point in the process of appraisals. The fact that the final appraisal determination now states, “Drug-eluting stents are recommended for use in PCI for the treatment of coronary artery disease, within their instructions for use, only if: (a) the target artery to be treated has less than a 3 mm calibre or the lesion is longer than 15 mm, and (b) the price difference between DES and bare-metal stents is no more than £300”, is undoubtedly a relief if you are committed to patient care at the front line, although it raises questions about the appraisal mechanism. There appear to be two schools of thought in relation to this latter issue. First, that the original analysis demonstrates that the process undertaken was fundamentally flawed in its design: expert witnesses only contributed to the appraisal rather than being built in as a core component of it there was a dependence upon health economists whose previous analyses betrayed an important degree of anti-DES, pro-coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) bias. Such factors would allow the more cynical to predict a negative appraisal, even in the face of powerful randomised and observational data to support clinical benefit: data that was never disputed, and in fact clearly stated, in the preliminary document. Second, by contrast, is that it is a triumph for the design of the appraisal process that there was such a substantial turnaround in the conclusion reached after the public consultation exercise. I am sure that NICE will claim vindication for the process based upon this argument.

In recent years, general practitioners (GPs) have been swamped by the burden of diabetes in the UK. The incidence has been growing almost as fast as our national waistlines, with the number of patients affected increasing from 800,000 to 1.8 million between 1980 and 2004, and the figure is predicted to increase to 3 million by 2010. In addition, the landmark UK prospective diabetes study (UKPDS) has resulted in a gradual ‘rebranding’ of diabetes from a metabolic to a cardiometabolic disease. About 75–80% of patients with type 2 diabetes die, not from short-term complications of hyperglycaemia, but as a consequence of cardiovascular disease, which is more influenced by blood pressure and cholesterol management than by glycaemic control.1-3 Finally, far from being able to divert our energies from glycaemic control to tight control of blood pressure and cholesterol, we find glycaemic targets dropping ever lower. Poor glycaemic control is a major risk factor for microvascular complications, including diabetic retinopathy, peripheral neuropathy and nephropathy. While patients do not die of diabetic retinopathy, as the single most common cause of adult blindness it certainly causes huge morbidity. The burden of diabetic nephropathy is also increasing rapidly, with up to 45% of new cases of endstage renal failure accounted for by complications of diabetes.4 It is against this background that the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) recommends a target glycosylated haemogloblin (HbA1c) of 6.5–7.5%, with a 6.5% target preferred, if feasible.5

The Second Scientific Meeting of the Cardiorenal Forum (CRF) was held recently at the Royal Pharmaceutical Society in London. This well-attended meeting highlighted the growing interest in this area. Here, the meeting organisers, Drs Paul Kalra, Philip Kalra and Henry Purcell, report highlights of the varied presentations made during the day.

The dramatic improvement in the management of cardiovascular disease over the past decade and the challenges that lie ahead were key elements of ‘Looking to the Future’, the 10th anniversary Annual Scientific Meeting of the Primary Care Cardiovascular Society held in London on 11th–13th October 2007. Over this period, the PCCS has grown from a small organisation to the influential body it is today. Medical journalist Rhonda Siddall reports from the meeting where an air of optimism embraced all the sessions, from celebration of past achievements to discussion of the future problems a new decade will bring.

Switching statins from on-patent to off-patent generic simvastatin is currently the focus of a major policy initiative by the Department of Health. In this context, an observational study of statin switching conducted by the manufacturer of an on-patent statin has already attracted considerable widespread media attention even before its publication within this issue of the British Journal of Cardiology (see pages 280-5). It is likely to stimulate considerable controversy and debate in the months ahead.

Huge changes are underway within the UK’s National Health Service (NHS). A far-reaching programme of marketing-orientated changes has resulted in “the emergence of a new NHS where increasingly care is delivered by an ‘alphabet soup’ of agencies and public and private providers”. These changes have affected both primary and secondary care and they continue to impact on the practice of medicine.

Atherothrombosis is the underlying pathology for most ischaemic events, including myocardial infarction, many forms of stroke, peripheral arterial insufficiency, and cardiovascular death, together with sudden cardiac death. As such, atherothrombosis represents a major healthcare concern throughout the world. Due to the increase in sedentary lifestyle and overeating, obesity, metabolic syndrome, and diabetes are all increasing in parallel, fuelling the atherothrombosis epidemic. It is likely, as the population ages and as urbanisation and industrialisation continue, that atherothrombosis will grow in prominence as a major public health problem.

Patients are waiting too long for echocardiography. A British Society of Echocardiography (BSE) survey shows that 62% of patients are waiting longer than four weeks and 23% more than 18 weeks.¹ There is substantial under provision of services and those that do exist need to work more effectively. The government is focussing on diagnostic services, including echocardiography, with a number of programmes including the 18-week project and expanding commissioning of services beyond traditional providers.² 

The Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN) recently published a comprehensive guideline of the management of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Here, Dr Kevin Jennings and Professor Lewis Ritchie, co-chairs of the SIGN coronary heart disease (CHD) guidelines steering group, look at the implications of the recent guidance for secondary care. The full five guidelines covering acute coronary syndromes, cardiac arrhythmias in CHD, chronic heart failure, stable angina, and risk estimation and the prevention of CVD, are available at www.sign.ac.uk. In the last issue of the journal, the implications for primary care were considered.

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is the leading cause of death in the UK (accounting for 105,000 deaths in 2004) and exerts a huge burden, both on our healthcare system (around £3,500 million in 2003) and on our economy (£7.9 billion per year). Following an acute myocardial infarction (AMI), the 30-day mortality remains significant at around 10%, despite successful reperfusion therapy, instituted by either thrombolysis or primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), paving the way for novel cardioprotective strategies to be developed.

The Scottish Intercollegiate Guideline Network (SIGN) has published five new guidelines on heart disease with the aim of helping reach the Scottish Executive’s target of reducing deaths from coronary heart disease (CHD) in those aged under 75 years by 60% for the period 1995–2010. It is hoped the new guidance will help further reduce mortality, which has already fallen by one third between 1995 and 2005. The new guidance covers acute coronary syndromes (SIGN 93), cardiac arrhythmias in coronary heart disease (SIGN 94), the management of chronic heart failure (SIGN 95), the management of stable angina (SIGN 96), and risk estimation and the prevention of cardiovascular disease (SIGN 97). The full guidance is available at www.sign.ac.uk. Here, Dr Alan Begg gives a primary care perspective on the new guidance.

For nearly 40 years it has been suggested that high levels of homocysteine are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease and that lowering these levels might be beneficial. On the basis of recently-published evidence, however, it appears that this hypothesis no longer holds and it is, perhaps, now time to move on in the search for non-conventional cardiovascular risk factors and other markers of disease risk.

Congenital heart disease (CHD) is one of the most common inborn defects, occurring in approximately 0.8% of newborn infants. Adults with congenital heart disease are the beneficiaries of successful paediatric cardiac surgery and cardiology programmes across the United Kingdom. Had it not been for surgical intervention in infancy and childhood, 50% or more of these patients would have died before reaching adulthood. This success story of medicine has created a significant population of young adults, who require lifelong cardiac and non-cardiac services.1 Many of them face the prospect of further surgery, arrhythmia intervention and, if managed inappropriately, an increased risk of heart failure and premature death.

Statins represent the cornerstone of lipid-lowering therapy in patients with or at high risk of premature premature cardio vascular disease (CVD) but even among those that achieve guideline targets for low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, there is still a 50–70% residual risk of cardiovascular events on statin monotherapy. In terms of absolute cardiovascular risk, nearly one in six statin-treated patients will experience an event over the next five years.

The many advances made in treating myocardial infarction and coronary artery disease has brought a new challenge – that of refractory angina. This is defined as chronic stable angina that persists despite optimal medical treatment in patients where revascularisation is unfeasible or where the risks are unjustified.

Patent foramen ovale (PFO) is defined as a communication at the fossa ovalis between the primum and secundum atrial septa that persists after the first year of life. In utero the PFO functions as a physiological conduit for right to left shunting and it functionally closes at birth once the pulmonary circulation is established and there is a rise in left atrial pressure. This is followed by anatomical closure of the septum primum and septum secundum by one year of age.

Recent presentations at the joint meeting of the European Society of Cardiology and World Congress of Cardiology in Barcelona, Spain, highlighted the potential problem of very late stent thrombosis and increased non-cardiac death occurring in drug-eluting stents (DES) (see pages 317–18). The presentations received major publicity, not least because of the comments of the designated discussant Professor Salim Yusuf (McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada) at one of the conference Hot Line sessions.

Hypertension is very common and is easily detectable. It is estimated that up to 40% of adults have raised blood pressure (BP) and, clearly, the proportion increases with age. The World Health Organization (WHO) identified high BP as the most important preventable cause of premature morbidity and mortality world-wide, ahead of smoking and elevated cholesterol.

How much would you pay for an extra year of life? What if it was only a few months or even a few weeks? How much would you pay to stop a myocardial infarction (MI) happening to a close family member? As healthcare expenditure tries to grow faster than gross domestic product, these are questions increasingly being faced, incredible though it may seem, leaving difficult decisions.

Treatment of chronic heart failure (CHF), an important cause of global morbidity and mortality, has evolved in the last three decades.1-3 Activation of neurohormonal systems plays a key role in the pathophysiology and progression of the disease. Therapeutic strategies directed towards their inhibition have reduced morbidity and mortality.3 The major mechanism seems to be related to the inhibition or reversal of remodelling.4 Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors are known to reduce symptoms and improve prognosis. The benefit of beta blockers in patients with heart failure has been amply demonstrated by comparing outcomes in patients prescribed a beta blocker or a placebo in patients on optimal treatment with diuretics and ACE inhibitors.

According to World Health Organization estimates, 16.7 million people die of cardiovascular diseases each year. By the year 2010, it is estimated that cardiovascular disease will become the leading cause of death in developing countries and by 2020 it will contribute to nearly 25 million deaths worldwide. Although therapies including drugs, lifestyle modification and revascularisation procedures have been demonstrated in clinical trials to be beneficial, they are under-utilised. Paradoxically, in spite of the under-use of evidence-based therapies, patients actively seek complemen- tary and alternative medicine (CAM) treatments. While many alternative therapies involve oral vitamin and mineral supple- ments that are unlikely to cause harm, chelation therapy is one of the most aggressive and intensive CAM modalities.

Our understanding of the pathophysiology of acute coronary syndromes and, in particular, the interplay of a number of complex parallel processes, continues to develop.1 These processes include inflammation, thrombosis and matrix turnover with potential gene and environmental influences. Vitamin D, known primarily as a hormone of bone metabolism, can affect the transcription of a number of genes which play a pivotal role in both the development of acute coronary syndromes and the pathogenesis of coronary artery disease (CAD). The purpose of this review is to examine the mechanisms by which vitamin D and the vitamin D receptor (VDR) might influence the development of acute coronary syndromes.

We continue our series where Consultant Interventionist Dr Michael Norell takes a sideways look at life in the cath lab ..... and beyond. In this column, he looks at the unreal and riveting world of TV medicine.

Submissions are in and now the real lobbying can begin. Scarcely a year after the implementation of the Quality and Outcomes Framework (QOF) of the new General Medical Services (GMS) contract,1 the first review is already well underway and due to come into effect on 1st April 2006.

As an organisation we are delighted that, as from this issue, The British Journal of Cardiology will become the official journal of the Scottish Heart and Arterial Risk Prevention group (SHARP). SHARP, a registered charity launched in Scotland in 1988, now attracts members from across the UK bringing together a wide range of healthcare professionals interested in the prevention and management of cardiovascular disease (CVD).

The Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial (ASCOT) reported the final results of its blood pressure lowering arm at the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) Annual meeting amidst much publicity.

Heart failure affects over 750,000 people in the UK and 65,000 new cases are diagnosed every year. It carries a poor prognosis with a population-based study finding a 40% one-year mortality in all new diagnosed cases1 with those in New York Heart Association (NYHA) class IV having a 60% one-year mortality.

The association between mitral valve disease, atrial fibrillation (AF) and the incidence of embolic stroke is well known. The incidence of systemic embolism (including embolic stroke) is seven times greater in patients with mitral valve disease and AF.

Health risk is not synonymous with obesity and obesity is not synonymous with visceral fat. Obesity is now recognised by governments, and importantly in medical training, as a chronic disease leading to multiple organ-specific pathologies (including metabolic syndrome and coronary heart disease).

Major advances have been made in the management of heart failure (HF) over recent years. Modern day pharmacotherapy and device-based therapy have brought about significant improvements in prognosis and a reduction in morbidity.

The review by Vazir and colleagues in this issue of the journal (see pages 219–23) comes as a timely and practical update on the implications, diagnosis and treatment of sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) in congestive heart failure (CHF).

The Department of Health has supported the standards and targets set in the National Service Framework (NSF) for coronary heart disease (CHD) with a programme of investment and reorganisation.

Doctors are encouraged to follow evidence-based guidelines in the assessment and management of chest pain. Sometimes following these guidelines conflicts with clinical experience and even common sense, as is shown by the contrasting approaches (and outcomes) to this case .

Every day we are bombarded with media headlines and news stories about obesity, physical inactivity, faddy diets and ‘miracle’ foods.But how far do we need to go before we adopt a balanced approach to eating? And what is our current nutritional status: is it possible to be overweight yet still have suboptimal nutritional status, particularly with respect to vitamins and minerals?

Statin therapy is established as the basis of lipid-lowering therapy in all patients with established atherosclerotic disease.1 However, statin trials show that 50–70% of cardiovascular events cannot be prevented by statins alone.2,3 This raises the question about the next step that should be taken to prevent further events in high-risk patients already on a statin.ITED

Statins are prescribed worldwide for patients with coronary heart disease (CHD) and also for those at risk of developing atherosclerotic vascular disease. They represent a valuable treatment option for managing lipid levels. However, the well-publicised withdrawal of cerivastatin (Baycol®, Bayer) in 2001 led to concern and much subsequent discussion over the safety of statins. This review looks at the evidence in relation to the benefits and risks of statins and demonstrates that the benefits of statins far outweigh the risks.

Over the last decade improvements in the anaesthetic, medical and surgical management of patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG), along with refinements in cardiopulmonary bypass, have resulted in better clinical outcomes.

A recent report in the British Medical Journal has suggested that the incidence of myocardial infarctions has only plateaued with the rise in statin prescriptions (BMJ 2004;329:645). Although this observation does need to be interpreted with caution, there may be several reasons for this.

Implementation of new evidence-based guidelines is one of the most daunting tasks facing healthcare professionals today, and in order to meet this challenge we need to be well informed and to inform our patients.

Although studies from two decades ago documented the association of low haemoglobin with chronic heart failure (CHF), the potential for an important pathophysiological link has largely been ignored until recently. In 2000 Silverberg and colleagues reported on a cohort of patients (n=142) attending a specialist nephro-cardiology clinic. 1 Anaemia (haemoglobin < 12 g/dL) was present in over half the patients and was associated with symptom severity.

The pharmacological treatment of patients with chronic heart failure has changed dramatically over the past 25 years. This change began with the demonstration of the beneficial effects of the combination of hydralazine and isosorbide dinitrate in the V-HeFT-I (Veterans Administration Co-operative Study) trial.

Most treatments administered to patients act to relieve symptoms. But in the name of saving life, having an implanted cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) leaves the patient prone to unpredictable episodes of symptoms including collapse, and abrupt and explosive chest pain, of which the informed patient may live in persistent fear.

Despite many attempts at reform, there has been a persistent shortfall in the number of consultant cardiologists. As long ago as 1985, the conservative recommendation was made that each general hospital should have at least one physician, practising general medicine but having a special expertise and training in cardiology.

Statins are currently provided at NHS expense for patients with coronary heart disease (CHD), diabetes and those whose coronary risk is greater than 3% per year.

The difficulty in delivering a viable primary prevention policy has been evident ever since the publication of the National Service Framework for Coronary Heart Disease (NSF-CHD).

The management of advanced heart failure when medical treatment alone is no longer sufficient was the focus of the 2003 British Society for Heart Failure (BSH) annual autumn meeting, held in Oxford on 28 November.

A joint British Journal of Cardiology and H.E.A.R.T UK round table meeting held at the National Heart and Lung Institute, 18th November 2003.

It seems ironic that, at a time of ultra-specialisation, when the public is demanding higher standards from doctors, academic medicine is being downgraded. Cardiac pathology represents a perfect case in point.

The introduction of the first specialist registrar training programme in December 1995 brought a radical overhaul in higher specialist training. Each speciality produced a curriculum establishing specific training objectives against which the progress of an individual trainee could be judged.

The traditional role of the cardiac nurse, particularly at the inception of the coronary care unit (CCU), has been evolving since the early 60s.

Cardiac rehabilitation has historically been an underdeveloped service in the UK. It is now recognised as an essential component in the management of heart disease and will shortly encompass those at risk of developing cardiovascular disorders.

Hypertension is one of the major risk factors for vascular disease and its treatment to target requires not only careful monitoring with lifestyle advice and pharmacological intervention but also a good understanding of the condition by the patient.

During the second half of the twentieth century our knowledge of the aetiology of and pathophysiological mechanisms underlying hypertension have advanced immeasurably. Furthermore, few, if any, areas of medicine have as many major morbidity and mortality trials to inform optimal management as does hypertension.

The merits of reducing cholesterol to help prevent coronary heart disease (CHD) were questioned 10 years ago. There were great debates about the utility of reducing low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and it is now clear, following the publication of at least eight different clinical drug trials, that reducing cholesterol with statin drugs helps to reduce total mortality, cardiovascular mortality and morbidity and interventional procedures.

The Primary Care Cardiovascular Society (PCCS) has come a long way since a small group of us met in an inauspicious hotel in middle England in the mid 1990s, to discuss the formation of a group through which to develop a network of general practitioners (GPs) with a particular interest in cardiovascular disease and its management.

Ten years ago, England had one of the worst death rates from circulatory diseases in Europe. Today, thanks to the expertise and hard work of thousands of NHS staff, major progress has been made in implementing the National Service Framework (NSF) for Coronary Heart Disease (CHD), and deaths from circulatory diseases are set to be reduced by 40%, three years ahead of the 10-year target set when the NSF was published in March 2000. As a result, we estimate that around 100,000 lives are being saved each year.

This is the tenth anniversary issue of the British Journal of Cardiology(BJC) and, to mark the occasion, we have invited editorials from medical and nursing groups officially associated with the journal.

The early, non-invasive detection of coronary artery disease is a major challenge confronting contemporary cardiology. In particular, the early identification of vulnerable plaques that may lead to acute coronary syndromes (ACS) poses a major dilemma.

The British Journal of Cardiology begins a series of articles exploring the work of the Coronary Heart Disease Collaborative. This editorial gives a brief introduction to its origins, aims and philosophy for readers not yet involved in its activities.

Over the last decade, technical improvements have made off-pump coronary artery bypass (OPCAB) surgery a routine procedure. Exposure and positioning of the three main coronary targets with minimal haemodynamic deterioration has been achieved with a combination of pericardial retraction sutures, the Trendelenburg manoeuvre, and rotation of the operating table.1-3 Intracoronary shunts have been introduced to prevent snaring-related injury of the coronary vessels and to allow myocardial perfusion during the construction of the anastomoses.

The concept of chronic disease self-management programmes together with the emerging expert patient has not been widely studied in the context of heart disease. But many of our patients with chronic heart disease are already experts. The knowledge and experience held by the patient has been untapped as a healthcare resource. Research from Stanford1 has shown that lay people with chronic conditions – when given a detailed leader’s manual – can be as effective as professionals in managing their disease and its impact on their daily life. It has also been acknowledged in the report ‘The expert patient: a new approach to chronic disease management for the 21st Century’,2 which recommends action over a six-year period to introduce lay led self-management training programmes for patients with chronic diseases within the NHS in England. A pilot phase between 2001 and 2004 will evaluate local programmes; between 2004 and 2007, programmes will be mainstreamed within all NHS areas.

A commentary on the sign guideline on cardiac rehabilitation, and links between the British Association for Cardiac Rehabilitation and the British Journal of Cardiology

German bears, Greek philosophers and Mediterranean diets – this year’s PCCS Annual Scientific Meeting goes European PCCS This year’s Primary Care Cardiovascular Society annual meeting was the occasion for a number of firsts. Not only was it the first Annual Scientific Meeting to be held outside England, it was also the first time members had the opportunity to take part in a Socratic Dialogue. The Greek philosopher’s technique did stimulate lively interaction and subsequent proceedings proved to be highly participative. With the highest attendance so far recorded, Chairman, Professor Richard Hobbs, felt that the 2002 meeting easily qualified as the best to date. Ola Soyinka reports from Cardiff.

So the Human Genome Project is complete. To some, perhaps the most extraordinary finding is that of just how few genes each of us possesses – no more, it seems, than 35–40,000. Of course, every single one of us has the same basic set of genes: it is this common genetic inheritance that makes us human rather than any other species. And yet, apart from our shared human characteristics, we are all remarkably different. Why is this?

Heart attack and stroke are major causes of mortality and morbidity in developed countries but in the last two decades lifestyle, clinical and pharmaceutical endeavour have reduced age-adjusted cardiovascular disease rates. As longevity increases, however, macrovascular disease risk also increases. Unfortunately, two lifestyle changes – lack of exercise and increasing obesity – are in the wrong direction, aggravating hyperlipidaemia, hypertension, diabetes mellitus and insulin resistance. Thus, major challenges are still present, highlighted in the National Service Frameworks (NSFs) for coronary heart disease and diabetes. To maximise their contributions to these problems, the British Hyperlipidaemia Association (BHA) and Family Heart Association (FHA) have merged to form the Hyperlipidaemia Education And Research Trust – HEART UK. Both associations have been concerned with scientific, medical and social issues of cholesterol and lipids in the UK. HEART UK marks a substantial move forward for scientific lipid study, for recognition of the high-risk individual, and for patient treatment.

The first reported combined heart and kidney transplant occurred in 1978.1 The patient died of gram negative sepsis 15 days after transplantation. It was not until 1986 that a case was reported with long-term (> 18-month) survival.2 Since that time, there have been more than 40 publications examining the pros and cons of simultaneous heart and kidney transplantation. Initial reports consisted mainly of small case series demonstrating proof of concept and adequate 1–3 year survival, mostly in line with that of heart transplantation alone.3-5 Later it was noted that simultaneous transplantation seemed to protect against rejection of the heart transplant (although different immunosuppressive protocols were frequently employed) and that rejection of one organ often occurred independently of immunological damage to the other.

Biotechnology and cardiovascular medicine – a hazy past and bright future? Melinda Swann, Adam Raman, Michael KirchengastFrom such successful beginnings, the biotechnology sector has since gone on to have a rather hazy past, for which there are many plausible explanations. In March 2000, the sector was grossly overvalued and, since then, investors’ aversion to the area has flourished due to the perceived risk they felt they were taking. This has led to the growth of many biotechnology companies being stunted since access to capital has become more difficult – studies, especially long-term survival trials in cardiovascular medicine.

The Impact of Nicorandil in Angina (IONA) study A report from a British Cardiac Society Satellite Symposium, 2002 Angina pectoris is not a benign disease: it is associated with significant morbidity and mortality and it affects more than 10% of men over the age of 60 years.

I am delighted that The British Journal of Cardiology is to become an official journal of the British Hypertension Society (BHS) information service. The BHS information service was developed to provide doctors and other health care professionals with information about hypertension. This includes details of current clinical management guidelines, recommended blood pressure monitoring devices and succinct summaries of management issues pertaining to specific clinical scenarios.

Concerning atherosclerosis imaging and coronary calcium concentrates predominantly on electron beam computed tomography (EBCT).1 Non-invasive coronary artery imaging can take the form of coronary artery calcium assessment or coronary angiography. Imaging can be performed with EBCT, or since 2001, with the latest generation of helical (‘spiral’) CT scanners (known as ‘multislice’ CT scanners in view of simultaneous acquisition of four image ‘slices’). There are major differences between EBCT and multi-slice helical CT. Whereas with helical CT the patient is continually advanced through a rapid mechanically rotating gantry (X-ray source and detector array), EBCT relies on X-rays produced with an electronically steered electron beam.

Taking vascular disease beyond convention Using the full lipid profile to identify and reduce the risk of coronary heart disease Lipid levels: risks and targets Prioritisation of high-risk coronary heart disease patients for statin intervention Key guideline cholesterol targets and full lipid profiling Scientific summary Introduction S1 Lipid levels: risks and targets S2 Prioritisation of high-risk coronary heart disease patients for statin intervention S3 Section 1: Key guideline cholesterol targets and full lipid profiling S4 Section 2: Scientific summary S5 Section 3: Patient identification S7 Section 4: Management strategies S9 Section 5: Practical use of clinical laboratories S10 Section 6: Tools for full lipid profiling and risk status calculation S11 Conclusion S11 Acknowledgements S12 Appendix 1: HDL, the metabolic syndrome and CHD risk S12 Appendix 2: Joint British societies coronary risk prediction charts S14 References S15 Patient identification Management strategies Practical use of clinical laboratories Tools for full lipid profiling and risk status calculation HDL, the metabolic syndrome and CHD risk.

Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) is more than just an adaptive response to the increase in left ventricular wall stress caused by hypertension. It has long been known that it is an indicator of a poor prognosis: the increased risk associated with LVH is independent of the blood pressure level.

Garlic has been used for its potential medicinal properties for centuries. It was cited 3,500 years ago by the Egyptians as useful in the treatment of heart disease, tumours, bites and worms. Interest in its use, particularly in reducing cardiovascular disease, has increased markedly over the past two decades with the rise in use of complementary and alternative medicines.

The prognosis for patients with non-ST elevation acute coronary syndromes (ACS) is not benign. Ongoing ischaemia is only one determinant of risk. The presence of ST-segment depression or elevated level of troponins is known to identify a group of patients at high risk of further events (death, MI, re-admission with ACS).The key management issue, however, is regarding which of these patients require early (i.e. in-hospital) revascularisation. Based upon current evidence from studies including FRISC II, TIMI-18, and the recent re-analysis of TIMI-III, our current strategy is to offer invasive investigation and revascularisation to all patients identified as ‘high risk’.

Is it time to forget about diastolic blood pressure? Should we abandon the mercury sphygmomanometer? Is non-pharmacological intervention a waste of time? These were some of the questions discussed at the first Primary Care Cardiovascular Society (PCCS) meeting of 2002 which was carried out jointly with the British Hypertension Society (BHS) on 26th February.

When is an infarct not an infarct? When it is an infarctlet, a necroset or a troponinosis.1 The advent of the cardiac-specific troponins as diagnostic tests has created confusion in the minds of some cardiologists. The fact that cardiac troponins may be used to diagnose previously unsuspected myocardial damage in patients presenting with acute coronary syndromes, when acute myocardial infarction (AMI) has been ruled out by conventional World Health Organization criteria, has been amply demonstrated since the original report by Hamm et al.

Acute coronary syndromes (ACS) are common in patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Diagnosis may be challenging given diverse symptomatology, absence of classical symptoms on presentation, and difficulties in the interpretation of biomarkers. Morbidity and mortality in this patient population remain high compared with patients with normal renal function, partly due to a lack of evidence for optimal management. This review presents a summary of the diagnostic features and early management of ACS in patients with ESRD on haemodialysis.

This review provides information about the current evidence-base for screening for atrial fibrillation (AF). The current burden of AF and recommendations related to AF screening are discussed, and randomised-controlled trial evidence for AF detection, clinical outcomes, harms and cost-effectiveness of population-based AF screening are reviewed. Finally, novel methods to refine the population to whom AF screening should be offered, which may improve clinical and cost-effectiveness, are considered.

Coronary artery spasm (CAS), or Prinzmetal angina, is a recognised cause of myocardial ischaemia in non-obstructed coronary arteries which typically presents with anginal chest pain. This case report describes an atypical presentation of CAS in a 68-year-old white British male with cardiovascular risk factors. The patient presented with recurrent palpitations and pre-syncope, with no chest pain. Ambulatory electrocardiography (ECG) monitoring revealed recurrent polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (PMVT). Coronary angiography identified moderate stenosis of the right coronary artery (RCA), without significant flow restriction by invasive pressure wire interrogation.

Inpatient monitoring revealed episodes of recurrent PMVT coinciding with transient inferior ST elevation and a distinct ‘shark fin’ waveform, indicating dynamic RCA occlusion. The arrhythmias persisted despite initial medical management, including calcium channel blockers and intravenous glyceryl trinitrate. Percutaneous coronary intervention to the moderate RCA lesion was performed, which definitively treated the arrhythmias.

This case emphasises the importance of recognising plaque-associated CAS as a potential trigger for life-threatening arrhythmias, even in the absence of chest pain. While medical therapy remains first-line treatment, life-threatening presentations may necessitate invasive interventions to stabilise the patient and prevent recurrence.

Pericardial cyst is a rare diagnosis, mainly considered a congenital condition. Most patients with pericardial cysts present without symptoms. Symptomatic presentation often relates to the size and location of the pericardial cyst. We report a case of a 49-year-old man who presented with subacute breathlessness in which the diagnosis of a pericardial cyst was made following various investigations – from transthoracic echocardiography and computed tomography scan to video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery biopsy, upon which a histological diagnosis was made. This case report reviews and discusses the available literature on the epidemiology and potential presenting features of a pericardial cyst, and the current recommended assessment and management strategies thereof. This case highlights the importance of effective multidisciplinary communication and joint input towards clinical decision-making, particularly in complex scenarios, to achieve optimal patient outcomes.

This article won first prize in the recent British Junior Cardiologists’ Association (BJCA) essay competition.

Though a rare condition, acute type A aortic dissection (ATAAD) is associated with high morbidity and mortality; hence, timely diagnosis and surgery are important to reduce the risk of mortality. If the dissection extends into the aortic arch branches, ensuring adequate cerebral perfusion during surgery is crucial to preventing stroke.

A 50-year-old man presented to the emergency department with symptoms of acute chest pain, dizziness, and headache. His blood pressure was 180/110 mmHg and heart rate was 100 bpm. He had a high blood pressure and heart rate and was initially treated with glyceryl trinitrate. Initial investigations ruled out acute coronary syndrome. Further investigations revealed ATAAD with the involvement of arch branches, an incomplete (open) circle of Willis and cerebral malperfusion. He was prepared for a branch-first total aortic arch replacement. Due to the high risk of stroke in this patient, off-pump axillo-axillary bypass (adaptive perfusion technique) was used to ensure bihemispheric cerebral perfusion throughout the surgery. The surgery was uneventful, and the patient was discharged 12 days later. Postoperative follow-up at six months was normal.

In conclusion, ATAAD is a surgical emergency that can mimic other acute thoracic conditions, such as pulmonary embolism and acute coronary syndrome; therefore, a judicious approach should be applied in the diagnosis and early management of symptoms. The reconstruction technique should be tailored to the patient’s needs; as this patient had a poorly functioning circle of Willis and cerebral hypoperfusion, continuous bilateral cerebral perfusion was essential to prevent irreversible cerebral ischaemic insult. The adaptive technique is easy to learn for surgeons who are already proficient in aortic dissection procedures, it is reproducible and requires only minor changes to the surgical setup without any substantial increase in operative time. Adoption of this technique in other surgical centres could be beneficial in increasing the success rate for the treatment of ATAAD.

In heart failure patients with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) requiring a pacemaker, biventricular cardiac resynchronisation therapy (CRT) is preferred to right ventricular (RV) pacing. Moreover, HFrEF patients who already have a conventional pacemaker in situ should be considered for CRT ‘upgrade’ in the presence of worsening symptoms and a significant proportion of RV pacing. While international guidelines are clearly defined, the ‘real-world’ prevalence of upgrading to CRT in patients with a significant proportion of RV pacing remains unclear. We aim to report the prevalence and characteristics of CRT upgrades in a UK district general hospital over a 10-year period.

We performed a retrospective univariate analysis of consecutive adult patients who underwent pacemaker implantation for Mobitz type 2 and complete atrioventricular (AV) block from January 2009 to December 2018. Over the study period, 34 patients were upgraded to CRT (prevalence 4.6%). Male patients were more likely to receive CRT upgrade (p=0.027). There was no statistically significant difference in RV-pacing burden or RV-paced QRS duration between CRT upgrade and non-upgrade groups. Patients who received CRT had lower baseline left ventricular (LV) ejection fraction than the non-upgrade group (50% vs. 60%, p=0.049).

In conclusion, this real-world study supports the notion that patients with impaired LV function and likely high requirements for RV pacing should be informed of the possible future need for device CRT upgrade. CRT should be considered upfront in selected patients with lower baseline LV systolic function.

Retinal ischaemic perivascular lesions (RIPL) are characterised on spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) as focal thinning of the inner nuclear layer (INL) associated with outer nuclear layer (ONL) upward expansion. We present a small case series of 11 patients and reviewed all relevant original research on RIPL and its association with cardiovascular diseases (CVD). All 11 patients had RIPL incidentally identified on SD-OCT by two consultant ophthalmologists during a routine medical retina clinic. We obtained a thorough medical history to identify risk factors and CVD. The most common risk factor was type 2 diabetes mellitus (90.9%), followed by hypertension (81.9%). A diagnosis of arrhythmia was determined in 36.4% patients, coronary artery disease in 27.3%, cerebrovascular events in 36.4%, peripheral vascular disease in 27.3% and carotid artery stenosis in 8.3%. A literature search was conducted using PubMed, Google Scholar and Scopus, using all relevant key words. Seven pieces of original research were described in the literature. Six of these described a RIPL prevalence ranging from 34.62% to 91%. One paper described a case series with an incidence of 72.7% new diagnosis of CVD in their cohort who were identified to have RIPLs. The ophthalmologists’ role in detecting RIPLs could be used to assess cardiovascular risk status, supporting a multi-disciplinary approach in managing CVD.

Wellens’ syndrome, characterised by specific T-wave changes on electrocardiogram (ECG), indicates critical proximal left anterior descending (LAD) stenosis and high acute myocardial infarction risk. While revascularisation is the standard treatment, it may be unsuitable for elderly patients with comorbidities. We present a case of successful medical management of Wellens’ syndrome type B in a 94-year-old woman deemed unfit for invasive interventions. The patient was treated with dual antiplatelet therapy, high-intensity statin, and anti-anginal medications. Symptom control was achieved, and serial ECGs and cardiac biomarkers remained stable. This case demonstrates that aggressive medical management can be a viable alternative in elderly patients with Wellens’ syndrome type B, unsuitable for invasive procedures.

Heart failure (HF) is a significant problem in the UK with variation in services across the country. Here we describe the findings from a cross-sectional survey of HF services in the UK performed between September 2021 and February 2022.

Seventy-nine responses describing hospital-based HF services from all devolved countries were received. The clinical lead in 82% of hospitals was a cardiologist with specialist interest in HF. Just over half of HF hospital services had a one-stop diagnostic clinic with a median of two clinics per week. A two-week pathway and six-week pathway were present in 78.5% and 75%, respectively. Only 4% of services met referral waiting time targets 100%, and 15% never met targets. The majority of inpatient HF services reviewed patients with primary (96%) or secondary (89%) admission for HF with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), corresponding percentages for HF with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) were 68% and 51%, respectively. HF services reported a median of two HF consultant cardiologists, five non-HF consultant cardiologists, one palliative care consultant, two band seven and one band six HF specialist nurses.

In conclusion, considerable variation in hospital-based HF services across the UK exist, which may not meet the needs of patients.

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a leading cause of global mortality, necessitating extensive research efforts. In Scotland, the NHS Research Scotland (NRS) Cardiovascular Network plays a pivotal role in coordinating cardiovascular research. Patient and public involvement (PPI) is crucial for shaping meaningful research strategies, yet barriers to such engagement persist.

We organised a hybrid PPI event, bringing together patients, researchers, and stakeholders. Interactive sessions explored barriers and enablers of PPI. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected, focusing on communication, commitment, and value as key themes.

Participants highlighted communication challenges, emphasising the need for clear, accessible information about research involvement. Commitment barriers included costs, travel, and time constraints. Feeling valued as research participants was essential, emphasising recognition of diverse experiences. Running the event as a hybrid facilitated broader participation, employing professional notetakers, British sign language (BSL) interpreters, and moderators.

In conclusion, holding this event emphasised the importance of PPI in cardiovascular research, outlining communication, commitment, and value as key facets. Hybrid events enhance inclusivity but demand careful planning. Meaningful PPI, as exemplified in this study, informs and enhances research quality, underscoring the need for continued investment in patient involvement initiatives.

Previous studies have shown mixed results comparing short-term mortality in patients undergoing urgent transcatheter aortic valve implantation (Urg-TAVI) compared with elective procedures (El-TAVI) for severe aortic stenosis (AS). This study aimed to explore the predictors of requirement for Urg-TAVI versus El-TAVI, as well as compare differences in short- and intermediate-term mortality.

This single-centre, retrospective cohort study investigated 358 patients over three years. Baseline demographic data were collected for patients undergoing elective and urgent procedures, and mortality outcomes at one-month, one-year and three-year follow-up were compared.

Urg-TAVI was required in 131 (36.6%) patients. Patients undergoing Urg-TAVI were significantly more likely to be female, have poor left ventricular (LV) function, with higher baseline creatinine and higher clinical frailty score (CFS). Higher rates of vascular complications were independently associated with increased mortality at one month. Mortality at one year was associated with higher creatinine level (odds ratio [OR] 1.01, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.00 to 1.01, p=0.0013) and an urgent procedure (OR 2.25, 95%CI 1.28 to 3.97, p=0.0048). There remained a higher mortality in the urgent patients at three-year follow-up.

In conclusion, undergoing TAVI urgently did not have a statistically significant effect on 30-day mortality. However, over long-term follow-up of one year, it was associated with worse mortality than elective TAVI, and this persisted out to three years.

Fabry disease (FD), resulting from alpha-galactosidase A enzyme deficiency, remains underdiagnosed despite readily available methods for diagnosis. This multi-centre prospective survey across six tertiary centres aimed to determine the level of consideration of FD in patients presenting with left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH). LVH was defined according to the guidelines of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association (ACC/AHA) for the management of cardiomyopathies, where LVH is diagnosed if the left ventricular wall thickness exceeds 15 mm in any segment or exceeds 13 mm in the presence of a known diagnosis in a first-degree relative. Of 143 patients surveyed, only three with LVH underwent diagnostic testing for FD, all testing negative. Moreover, 44% of patients with LVH had an ambiguous aetiology, highlighting possible missed FD diagnostic opportunities. A discrepancy was observed between electrocardiogram (ECG) results and echocardiography or cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) in diagnosing LVH, emphasising the need for comprehensive cardiac imaging. This project highlights the urgent requirement to amplify FD awareness, especially in patients with LVH, to ensure early intervention and better patient outcomes.

This study aimed to understand the national echocardiography assessment pathway in heart donation. We carried out a prospective national specialist nurses in organ donation (SNOD) audit of UK donor offers between 20 August and 31 November 2022, and a prospective national recipient transplant centre audit of all donor offers between 22 September and 19 December 2022.

The SNOD audit identified median time delay between requesting and performing an echocardiogram of 17.9 hours (interquartile range [IQR] 13.9–33.2). The staff group performing the echo were a cardiac physiologist in 57% (17/30) of cases and a medical doctor in 43% (13/30) of cases. Only 30% (9/30) of providers held comprehensive accreditation, 13% (4/30) were focused accredited, 33% (10/30) had no accreditation, and 23% (7/30) were unknown. Only 50% (15/30) of images were transferred for review to the transplant centre. Images were transferred via email (10/15, 67%), WhatsApp (4/15, 27%) and a standard picture archiving system (PACS) (1/15, 3%).

The transplant centre audit revealed that in 21% of donors, the transplant team felt that the echo performed at the referring centre contained inadequate information, and in 11% of donors, no echo was performed at all. Only 52% of potential donors had echo images available for direct review by the transplant centre. In 17% of cases, the transplant team felt that if good quality echo data and imaging had been available, the decision regarding mobilising the retrieval team may have been altered.

In conclusion, to improve donor heart utilisation rates we believe there is a need to recognise the contribution of focused echo and improve guidance for echo image acquisition. There is also a need for a robust system for image transfer to transplant centres.

Protection against the increased risk of sudden cardiac death (SCD) due to ventricular arrhythmias is offered by the implantation of cardiac defibrillators. A life-expectancy of less than one year is usually a contraindication to the implantation of these devices. We evaluated the outcomes of all those who received defibrillator implantation for any clinical indication at our centre in the same year that early (<12 months) death notifications occurred.

This is a single-centre retrospective study on the outcomes of all patients who had a transvenous defibrillator implant in 2015. All transvenous defibrillator devices implanted for both primary and secondary prevention of SCD were included. Patient demographic data and device data were studied.

Data from 235 patients were analysed. In a follow-up period of 66.2 ± 3.8 months, 77 (32.8%) of the study cohort died; 20 (8.5%) of these patients died less than 12 months post-implant. None of the deaths were directly arrhythmia related. Factors that were significant in predicting mortality included age and ejection fraction <35% (p<0.01). From a pre-procedure biomarker perspective, an increased red cell distribution width (RDW) was strongly associated with early mortality risk on univariate and multi-variate analysis (p<0.001). Receiver operator characteristics (ROC) curve analysis found that the optimal cut-off for RDW was 14.75% (area under curve 0.75; sensitivity 0.69; specificity 0.77; p<0.001).

In conclusion, there are limitations in fully assessing patient prognosis despite current guidance. Universal clinical frailty scores that incorporate biomarkers may be helpful in enhancing this pre-assessment process to improve the evaluation of the risk of early non-arrhythmic-related death for implantable cardioverter defibrillator candidates.

Atrioventricular nodal (AVN) ablation with permanent pacemaker implantation – ‘pace and ablate’ – may be considered for patients with symptomatic atrial fibrillation (AF) for whom rhythm control has been unsuccessful. This creates concerns about inducing pacemaker dependence and potential pacemaker-induced cardiomyopathy (PICM). Conduction-system pacing mitigates PICM, so we expect a greater uptake of AVN ablation going forward.

We conducted a retrospective multi-centre review of our patients who underwent AVN ablation over a one-year period. AVN ablation was successful with durable lesions at one year. Radiofrequency energy was utilised in all patients, with a median application time of 2.67 minutes. Median procedure time was found to be 55.5 minutes and fluoroscopy median of 3.5 minutes. Median radiation dose was 11 mGy. We found no acute or subacute complications up to three months.

In conclusion, our right-sided approach for ablation, staged post-device insertion demonstrated results in keeping with other centres in the UK and Europe. We expect our current practice to become more widespread, given the increased risk of lead-related complications or failures associated with physiological pacing compared with standard pacing methods.

The combination of atrioventricular (AV) block – specifically high-grade AV block– within the setting of myocarditis, is a rarely encountered clinical phenomenon. It is commonly encountered in infiltrative cardiomyopathies but may be associated with myocarditis.

Beyond conventional investigation and consideration of endomyocardial biopsy, there is a paucity of data to guide clinicians with regards to the issue of heart rhythm disorder. Options include a ‘watch-and-wait’ policy, anti-arrhythmic drugs, consideration of a permanent pacemaker or, alternatively, a wearable or implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD).

The case encapsulates the difficulties facing clinicians with such pathology and the need to further investigate and risk stratify such patients.

Endomyocardial fibrosis is a common cause of restrictive cardiomyopathy worldwide, but rarely occurs in patients living outside tropical regions.¹ Herein is the first published case report of a 48-year-old woman with endomyocardial fibrosis due to hypereosinophilia secondary to a rare chromosome 8 and 9 PCM1-JAK2 translocation.

A 74-year-old man with a heterotopic heart transplant experienced alternating episodes of sustained native heart ventricular tachycardia and prolonged asystole. These were managed with cardioversion, drug therapy and pacemaker insertion. The unique physiology in such patients lends itself to numerous clinical considerations that would otherwise be routine management for most.

Sodium-glucose cotransporter type 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) have demonstrated efficacy in reducing cardiovascular deaths and hospitalisations associated with heart failure patients. Despite well-established benefits observed in clinical trials, their real-world application remains underexplored. The purpose of this quality improvement project was to investigate and address the gap between evidence-based guidelines and the practical application of SGLT2i therapy in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF).

The medical records were assessed in retrospect for HFrEF-related admissions at our cardiac centre. The main target of assessment was the dapagliflozin prescriptions in eligible patients. After the first cycle of data collection and analysis, several interventions, in the form of targeted teaching, empowering pharmacists, and utilising digital tools, were employed to improve compliance with prescriptions. After the implementation of our measures, a further cycle of data collection and analysis was carried out.

In the first cycle, 31% of 225 HFrEF patients, aged 74 ± 15 years, received dapagliflozin or had plans for its initiation. Prescription rates were influenced by age (mean 69 vs. 76 years, p<0.001) and admission under cardiology (70% vs. other specialties, p<0.001), while gender and diabetes had no impact. In the second cycle, 52% of 172 HFrEF, aged 74 ± 14 years, received dapagliflozin or had plans for its initiation. Prescription rates correlated with age (71 vs. 79 years, p<0.001) and admission under cardiology (59% vs. other specialties, p=0.002), with male patients more likely to be initiated on dapagliflozin (p=0.005).

Our quality improvement project sheds light on the challenges and opportunities in implementing dapagliflozin therapy for patients with HFrEF in a real-world clinical setting. The interventions introduced led to a substantial improvement in prescription rates, indicating the potential for positive change. There is a need for ongoing efforts to bridge the gap between evidence-based guidelines and clinical practice.

Traditionally, radial artery access (RAA) has been an exclusively ‘physician-delivered’ service, but with adequate training, nurse-led arterial cannulation can become widely adopted. In this clinical audit, senior nursing practitioners with at least two years of catheter lab experience, were offered RAA training. In phase 1 of training, two nurses were initially familiarised with a well-structured training protocol. Each of the two nurses carried out the first 50 RAA procedures under supervision on elective patients. In phase 2, candidates independently performed 100 procedures. The success and complication rates of these procedures were evaluated prior to their sign-off as competent. The procedural efficacy of nurses was compared with medical registrars of the department to assess the measures of patient satisfaction and time elapsed prior to the insertion of sheath.

During the first 100 directly observed RAA procedures, nurse 1 and nurse 2 achieved success rates of 84% (42/50 procedures) and 86% (43/50 procedures), respectively. During the second phase, nurse 1 achieved a success rate of 82% (82/100 procedures), whereas nurse 2 achieved a success rate of 97% (97/100 procedures). Overall, a success rate of 88% was achieved in the first 300 patients. No significant complications were noted. In contrast to medical registrars, nurse-led cannulation was associated with a greater extent of patient satisfaction, reduced pain intensity (p<0.001), and decreased patient-on-table to sheath insertion intervals (p<0.001). During embedding of the programme, the two nursing practitioners trained additional nurses. Of the five nurses that subsequently entered into training, two have successfully completed both training phases while a further three have completed phase 1. To date, an overall success rate of 91.1% (1,307/1,435 procedures) has been documented.

In conclusion, a nurse-led RAA program is feasible, with satisfactory success rates, no significant complications, and improved rates of patient satisfaction.

Sodium-glucose cotransporter type 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists are established glucose-lowering and weight-lowering agents used in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity. Several recent clinical trials have provided evidence that these agents can decrease the risk of, and slow progression of, cardiovascular and renal diseases independently of their glucose-lowering and weight-lowering effects. In clinical trials and ‘real-world’ observational studies in people with and without diabetes, SGLT2 inhibitors have offered protection against heart failure and chronic kidney disease, while GLP-1 receptor agonists have been associated with reductions in atherosclerotic cardiovascular events and albuminuria. Based on this evidence, SGLT2 inhibitors and GLP-1 receptor agonists can now be considered for use beyond diabetes and obesity as new treatment options in the management of cardiorenal disease.

Clinical trials and observational studies have demonstrated that long-term systolic blood pressure variability derived from repeated measurements of visit-to-visit clinic blood pressure is an important predictor of cardiovascular outcomes, independent of average levels of systolic pressure. Even in patients with well-controlled blood pressure (<140/90 mmHg), high systolic blood pressure variability confers an increased risk of cardiovascular events. Systolic blood pressure variability is currently derived from several measurements of visit-to-visit clinic blood pressure and expressed as the standard deviation of systolic pressure. Values in excess of 12 are indicative of high systolic blood pressure variability. Ongoing studies aim to determine whether home blood pressure monitoring may be an alternative way of measuring blood pressure variability. Evidence from several clinical trials shows that long-acting calcium-channel blockers, such as amlodipine, and thiazide-like diuretics are the only antihypertensive drugs that reduce long-term systolic blood pressure variability, and should be used preferentially in patients with high variability.

Heart failure (HF) is a prevalent and complex condition that demands precise and efficient management. This paper delves into a critical, yet often under-recognised, challenge in HF care – the accurate coding of patients on HF registers. We explore how discrepancies in coding, including missing patients and incorrect HF type classifications, can significantly impact patient management. The experiences of our healthcare system’s staff are examined to shed light on the real-world implications of these issues.

Clinicians and administrative staff in primary care can play a pivotal role in identifying, monitoring, and ensuring the accuracy of patient coding. By sharing their insights, we uncover the intricacies of addressing coding discrepancies and strategies suggested to optimise patient management. Furthermore, we investigate the technology and systems in place to aid staff in this endeavour.

This paper aims to contribute to the broader healthcare community’s understanding of the challenges related to coding accuracy in HF registers and to offer insights into potential solutions. By rectifying these coding discrepancies, we can enhance patient care, minimise potential oversights, and ultimately improve outcomes for individuals living with HF. Our findings underscore the significance of ensuring that no HF patient is missed or misclassified, emphasising the need for continued improvement in this vital aspect of HF care.

In this four-part editorial series, we have looked at the significance of research within cardiology training in the UK. The first three instalments explored the impact of research on a career in cardiology, identified the diverse research avenues, and provided guidance on navigating the application process. In the final part of this series, our focus shifts to post-higher degree opportunities within the field, and discuss the skills developed in research that can be applied to clinical practice.

In recent years, artificial intelligence (AI) has been used to improve the precision of valvular heart disease diagnosis and treatment. It has the ability to identify and risk stratify patients with valvular heart disease and holds promise in improving the innovation of new treatments through shorter, safer and more effective clinical trials. AI can help to guide the treatment of patients with valvular heart disease, by aiding in optimal device selection for transcatheter valvular interventions and, potentially, predicting the risk of specific complications. This review article explores the various potential applications of AI in the diagnosis and treatment of valvular heart disease in more detail.

Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) have been shown to reduce cardiovascular rehospitalisation in heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) patients. However, it is unknown whether initiating SGLT2i during an inpatient stay for a HFrEF exacerbation results in better outcomes versus initiation post-discharge in a cohort of diabetic and non-diabetic patients. This study compares cardiovascular rehospitalisation, heart failure specific rehospitalisation, cardiovascular death, and all-cause death between patients initiated on SGLT2i as an inpatient versus post-discharge.

A retrospective study of four hospitals in England involving 184 patients with HFrEF exacerbations between March 2021 and June 2022 was performed. Cardiovascular rehospitalisation, heart failure specific rehospitalisation, cardiovascular death, and all-cause death were compared between the two groups using Cox regression. A Cox proportional-hazards model was fitted to determine predictors of cardiovascular rehospitalisation.

There were 148 (80.4%) individuals who received SGLT2i as an inpatient, while 36 (19.6%) individuals received SGLT2i post-discharge. Median follow-up was 6.5 months for inpatients and 7.5 months for post-discharge patients (p=0.522). SGLT2i inpatients had significantly reduced cardiovascular rehospitalisations (22.3%) versus post-discharge patients (44.4%) (p=0.005), and significantly reduced heart failure specific rehospitalisations (10.1%) versus post-discharge patients (27.8%) (p=0.018). There was no significant difference in all-cause death (p=0.743) and cardiovascular death (p=0.816) between the two groups. Initiating SGLT2i post-discharge was an independent predictor of cardiovascular rehospitalisation (hazard ratio 2.40, 95% confidence interval 1.31 to 4.41, p=0.005).

In conclusion, inpatient SGLT2i initiation for HFrEF exacerbations may reduce cardiovascular and heart failure specific rehospitalisation versus initiation post-discharge. In the absence of contraindications, clinicians should consider initiating SGLT2i once patients are clinically stable during inpatient HFrEF admissions.

Atrial fibrillation (AF) is responsible for significant patient morbidity, and obesity is a major contributor to AF incidence and symptom burden. Weight loss has been shown to positively modify AF symptoms, but weight loss in a real-world population is often only temporary. This randomised study set out to examine if smartphone-based app technology could increase weight loss in a patient population with obesity and AF.

Individuals were screened following outpatient referral to Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust for symptomatic AF. Block randomisation was performed to allocate the treatment groups to either clinical follow-up or app-based follow-up, with weight loss updates planned fortnightly. Patients randomised to clinical follow-up received nurse-led telephone calls every two weeks, while those in the app arm received automated reminder messages every two weeks. Final follow-up at six months included clinical and weight data and a quality-of-life questionnaire.

Sixty-four patients underwent randomisation. No significant difference in weight loss was seen between the groups. Patient engagement was far more consistent in the telephone follow-up group.

In conclusion, no significant difference in weight loss was seen between the two groups, despite patient education on the value of weight loss to improve their AF symptoms.

Obesity is a global pandemic and is a recognised risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. However, its impact on cardiac structure and function using echocardiography, as well as its association with anthropometric parameters in otherwise healthy individuals, requires further investigation. Therefore, we conducted an observational study with a cohort of 196 participants, comparing various echocardiographic parameters in normal weight individuals and those who were overweight or obese but had no other risk factors. Our findings revealed that obese participants had significant changes in echocardiographic measurements of the structure and functions of the left ventricle, left ventricular global longitudinal strain, left atrium, right ventricle and right ventricular global longitudinal strain compared with the control group. Body surface area and body mass index were important anthropometric features that correlated with the above echocardiographic changes, and should be routinely evaluated to assess cardiovascular risk in patients. Further larger studies are necessary to determine the clinical significance of the echocardiographic changes observed in obese individuals and their impact on health.

The purpose of this study was to determine the correlation between the simplified treadmill score (STS) and both the number of blood vessels with significant stenosis and the severity of the SYNTAX score in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). This was an observational, cross-sectional study conducted at Dr. Soetomo General Hospital and Premier Surabaya Hospital in Indonesia from January 2011 to February 2012.

The results of the analysis using the Spearman correlation showed that there was a strong positive relationship between STS and the number of blood vessels with significant stenosis (r_s=0.616 and p<0.001). Similarly, the relationship between STS and SYNTAX score obtained (r_s=0.500 and p<0.001) indicates a fairly strong positive relationship.

In conclusion, there is a significant correlation between the STS as a clinical reference for estimating the probability of CAD through a weight-training test with the number of blood vessels experiencing significant stenosis.

A 59-year-old woman presented to the emergency room with sudden onset of retrosternal thoracic pain following emotional stress. The electrocardiogram (ECG) revealed T-wave inversions on precordial leads. Her blood analyses demonstrated elevation of myocardial necrosis markers (peak of troponin I of 3.4 ng/ml). Transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE) findings were consistent with Takotsubo syndrome, accompanied by mild left ventricular dysfunction. The patient underwent invasive coronary angiography revealing a spontaneous coronary artery dissection in the left anterior descending artery and left main artery. A repeat TTE one week later showed complete resolution of the segmental contractility with a full recovery of left ventricular function. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging revealed no abnormalities. The patient was discharged on dual-antiplatelet therapy. A follow-up coronary angiography performed one month later confirmed complete resolution of the dissection. Takotsubo syndrome and spontaneous coronary artery dissection predominantly affect women and share common triggers. This case highlights the often misdiagnosed association and emphasises the specific diagnosis and treatment nuances associated with it.

Cardiac metastases normally reflect diffuse metastatic spread of the primary tumour and are rarely found in isolation. We present a case of a 71-year-old man with a history of completely resected high-grade spindle cell sarcoma of the left thigh, who presented with shortness of breath, and was found to have a large right ventricular mass, subsequently diagnosed as a metastasis of the prior sarcoma. It was deemed inoperable and incurable, and the patient was offered palliative chemotherapy. Unfortunately, the patient died within four months of his original presentation.

Heart failure (HF) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in older people, and 80% of people with HF are aged over 60 years. HF is the end point for almost all common cardiovascular diseases, as well as many non-cardiovascular diseases. Despite this, HF remains underdetected and undertreated. Detection and treatment of HF has improved significantly in recent years, with several novel treatments developed in the last decade improving outcomes for patients. Therefore, earlier detection and improved treatment of HF has the potential to reduce morbidity and mortality for older people, particularly given the shift in ageing demographics anticipated over the coming decades. The British Geriatrics Society Cardiovascular Specialist Interest Group recently participated in the British Society for Heart Failure (BSH) ‘25in25’ Heart Failure Summit, which aims to reduce deaths due to HF by 25% in the next 25 years. The 2023 summit comprised experts from over 45 top health organisations across Europe, Canada and the US. The summit brought together cross-disciplinary expertise to support the implementation of strategies to improve outcomes for people living with HF, and, in this commentary, we reflect upon the priorities identified. We discuss the current barriers to the early detection and management of HF, and the particular challenges and complexity of managing HF in older people. Finally, we discuss the role of patient empowerment and how this can lead to improved care for older people living with HF.

In this article we focus on areas of the European Society for Cardiology (ESC) heart failure guideline 2023 update that will be most relevant in the day-to-day management of patients with heart failure. These include an expanded indication for sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors and intravenous iron, together with rapid optimisation of foundation therapies. With important outcomes for patients, there will undoubtedly need to be modifications to service delivery to ensure that they are widely available for patient benefit.

In ambulatory patients with complete heart block (CHB), dual-chamber (DDD) pacing confers physiological benefits versus single-chamber (VVI) pacing, however, the impact on mortality is disputed. Nonagenarians constitute an expanding proportion of pacemaker recipients, yet data on device selection and outcomes are limited, especially in emergency situations.

In nonagenarians with emergent CHB, we compared the clinical characteristics and outcomes of patients receiving VVI versus DDD pacemakers. Cox proportional-hazards analysis examined all-cause mortality and death from congestive cardiac failure (CCF).

There were 168 consecutive patients followed-up for 30.6 ± 15.5 months. Of these, 22 patients (13.1%) received VVI pacemakers; when compared with DDD recipients, these patients had similar median age (93 vs. 91 years, p=0.15) and left ventricular (LV) systolic function (LV ejection fraction [EF] 49.2% ± 9.7 vs. 50.7% ± 10.1, p=0.71), but were more frail (Rockwood scale 5.2 ± 1.8 vs. 4.3 ± 1.1, p=0.004) and more likely to have dementia (27.3% vs. 8.9%, p=0.011). Post-implant, device interrogation demonstrated that VVI recipients had higher respiratory rates (21.3 ± 2.4 vs. 17.5 ± 2.6 breaths per minute, p=0.002), lower mean heart rates (65.5 ± 10.1 vs. 71.9 ± 8.6 bpm, p=0.002), and lower daily activity levels (0.57 ± 0.3 vs. 1.5 ± 1.1 hours of activity, p=0.016) than DDD recipients. Adjusting for age, frailty and dementia, VVI pacing was associated with an increased risk of all-cause mortality (adjusted hazard ratio [HR] 2.1, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.08 to 4.1, p=0.03) and death from CCF (adjusted HR 7.1, 95%CI 2.5 to 20.6, p<0.001).

In conclusion, in nonagenarians with emergent CHB, dual-chamber pacing was associated with improved symptomatic and prognostic outcomes versus single-chamber pacing.

This editorial series explores research in UK cardiology and acts as a practical guide to trainees interested in pursuing early career research. Two earlier entries in the series have explored the rationale for pursuing research and how to identify a project and supervisor. We now take a closer look at navigating the application processes, including funding opportunities and regulatory approvals, to get your research off the ground.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) have been reported to occur in a significant number of patients diagnosed with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). We report our experience regarding the occurrence of symptomatic and asymptomatic CVDs in COVID-19 patients. In this cross-sectional study, 690 COVID-19 patients were included. Cardiovascular consultation had been requested for all of the patients based on their primary clinical examination, vital signs, and electrocardiogram (ECG). Additionally, 2D transthoracic echocardiography (TTE), and myocardial injury serum biomarkers assays (creatine phosphokinase-MB [CPK-MB] and cardiac troponins [cTn]) were measured once. Manifestations of CVDs, such as chest pain, abnormal serum markers, unstable angina, myocardial infarction (MI), myocarditis, and new-onset hypertension, were documented. The most common symptom was left hemithorax and interscapular pain (317 patients, 46%). New-onset high systolic and diastolic blood pressures were seen in 67 patients (10%). Unstable angina, MI, and myocarditis were, respectively, diagnosed in 20 (2.8%), five (0.7%), and 12 (1.7%) patients. On TTE, pericardial effusion was diagnosed in 139 patients (31.1%). The most common abnormal ECG changes seen were regarding the T-wave, including flat T-wave (148 cases, 21.4%) and inverted T-wave (141 cases, 20.4%). Serum cTn levels were positive or weekly positive in 17 cases (7.4%). The incidence rate of cardiovascular involvements was high in COVID-19 patients.

Factor (F) XI or XIa inhibition has attracted interest due to the protection from thrombotic events and minimal bleeding tendency observed in FXI-deficient individuals. The prospect of uncoupling the management of thrombosis from the bleeding risk inadvertently associated with current therapy inspired the development of agents directed towards this step in the coagulation process. This review describes the physiological rationale behind FXI/FXIa inhibition and the pharmacological properties of existing FXI/FXIa inhibitors. It also explores the potential clinical use of these agents in various thromboembolic pathologies, predominantly through the phase II clinical trials conducted so far comparing them to current anticoagulant therapy or placebo.

The use of simvastatin 40 mg with various interacting medicines may lead to an increased risk of myopathy. We examined the extent to which hospital inpatients were prescribed simvastatin 40 mg with amiodarone, amlodipine, diltiazem, or verapamil, and assessed if any action was taken by prescribers or the pharmacy team to avoid this interaction. We found 56 patients on a combination of interest during their stay. Of the 20 (36%) patients not discharged on the combination, in six instances this was due to pharmacy intervention, while the remaining instances when simvastatin 40 mg or the interacting drug was amended or ceased were due to other clinical reasons. There is a need among clinicians and pharmacy teams within the hospital for recognition and management of these particular interactions.

Our objective was to compare the efficacy of atrial fibrillation (AF) ablation versus permanent pacemaker (PPM) with atrioventricular node ablation (AVNA) versus direct current cardioversion (DCCV) for persistent AF in patients ≥65 years old.

Seventy-seven patients (aged 66–86, mean 75.4 years) with persistent AF were randomised (1:1:1) to AF ablation + amiodarone (± DCCV), PPM with AVNA (+DCCV) or DCCV + amiodarone. The primary end point was persistent AF recurrence, measured with an implanted cardiac monitor or PPM. Cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) was performed at baseline and six months. Symptom questionnaires were completed monthly. Follow-up was 12 months.

The primary end point occurred in fewer patients following AF ablation + amiodarone than DCCV + amiodarone (seven patients, 28% vs. 15 patients, 60%; hazard ratio [HR] 0.559, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.293 to 1.065, p=0.073) with no differences between DCCV + amiodarone and PPM with AVNA (HR 0.990, 95%CI 0.539 to 1.818, p=0.973). AF ablation + amiodarone resulted in a lower AF burden at 12 months compared with DCCV + amiodarone (17.0 ± 37.9% vs. 61.7 ± 48.6%, p<0.0001). Modified European Heart Rhythm Association (EHRA) symptom class improved in all patients (baseline 2.4 ± 0.495 vs. 12-month follow-up 1.84 ± 0.081, p=0.00001). Six-month CPET demonstrated a higher VO₂ peak in sinus rhythm (SR) compared with baseline in AF (12.1 ± 4.2 ml/kg/min at baseline to 15.3 ± 4.2 ml/kg/min at six months, p=0.013).

In conclusion, in older patients with persistent AF, ablation + amiodarone resulted in a lower AF burden at 12 months than DCCV + amiodarone. There was a non-significant trend toward reduced recurrence of device-detected persistent AF episodes. All therapies improved symptoms despite DCCV restoring SR in <50% of patients at 12 months. CPET demonstrated improved VO₂ peak with SR restoration.

Artificial intelligence (AI) will revolutionise cardiology practices over the next decade, from optimising diagnostics to individualising treatment strategies. Moreover, it can play an important role in combating gender inequalities in cardiovascular disease outcomes. There is growing evidence that AI algorithms can match humans at echocardiography analysis, while also being able to extract subtle differences that the human eye cannot detect. Similar promise is evident in the analysis of electrocardiograms, creating a new layer of interpretation. From big data, AI can produce algorithms that individualise cardiac risk factors and prevent perpetuating gender biases in diagnosis. Nonetheless, AI implementation requires caution. To avoid worsening health inequalities, it must be trained across diverse populations, and when errors arise, a robust regulatory framework must be in place to ensure safety and accountability. AI is perfectly positioned to capitalise on the growth of big data, but to proceed we require a generation of physicians who understand its fundamentals.

We present the cumulative percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) data of all comers (stable angina and acute coronary syndromes [ACS]) who presented to Hadi Clinic between January 2018 and December 2020. As a low-volume PCI centre in the Middle East, we wanted to find out if the outcomes of our PCI procedures are different from those of high-volume PCI centres in the UK and the Western world.

Prospectively collected data of all comers for PCI (urgent and elective) were retrospectively analysed. Pre-procedural data included patients’ baseline characteristics (age, gender, clinical presentation and comorbidities). Intra-procedural data included access route, coronary anatomy, lesion complexity, number of stents deployed, door-to-balloon time for primary PCI, and any intra-procedural complications. Post-procedural data included average length of in-hospital stay, intra-hospital morbidity and mortality, and mortality or admission with ACS 12–36 months after the index procedure.

A total of 567 patients underwent coronary catheterisation for the three-year period between January 2018 and December 2020. Mean age was 60.9 ± 9.4 years, and 459/567 (81.0%) were male. Comorbidities included dyslipidaemia 515/567 (90.9%), hypertension 460/567 (81.2%), diabetes 346/567 (61%), known prior coronary disease 250/567 (44.2%), and smoking 188/567 (33.1%). Clinical presentation was stable angina 130/567 (22.9%), non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndrome (NSTEACS) 312/567 (55%), ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) 125/567 (22.0%), and STEMI with cardiogenic shock 13/125 (10.4%). The radial approach was used in 544/567 (95.94%), the average SYNTAX score was 34.8 ± 9.6, and the average number of stents 2.6. The total number of PCI was 367 (122.3 annually) with PCI procedural complete success in 349/367 (95.1%), partial success 5/367 (1.36%), PCI procedural complications 3/367 (0.82%), PCI in-hospital mortality 1/367 (0.27%), door-to-balloon time for primary PCI 31.8 ± 12.2 minutes, subsequent admission with ACS after 12–36 months 2/367 (0.54%), and post-discharge mortality after 12–36 months 1/367 (0.27%).

In conclusion, our patient population have more comorbidities and more complex coronary disease in comparison to their western counterparts. Our annual PCI numbers have been significantly lower than the recommended 400 minimum cut-off figure, yet we have achieved comparable outcomes to those of larger institutions of the western world.

Cardiac pathology contributes to a significant proportion of emergency department (ED) attendances. Many could be managed as urgent outpatients and avoid hospital admission. We evaluated a novel rapid-access general cardiology clinic to achieve this, implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic.

We performed a retrospective review of baseline characteristics, investigations, final diagnoses, and 90-day safety (readmission, major adverse cardiovascular events [MACE], mortality) from electronic records and conducted a patient experience survey.

There were 216 ED referrals made between 1 June and 30 October 2020. The median time to review was two days (interquartile range 1–5). At 90 days, there were three (1.4%) re-presentations requiring admission, two (0.9%) MACE, and no deaths. There were 205 (95%) successfully managed without hospital admission. Among surveyed patients, 96% felt they had concerns adequately addressed in a timely manner.

In conclusion, our rapid-access cardiology clinic is a safe model for outpatient management of a range of cardiovascular presentations to the ED.

The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) advise against routine testing for coronary artery disease (CAD) in patients with non-anginal chest pain (NACP). This clinical audit sought to establish the prevalence of significant CAD in this cohort using computed tomography angiography (CTCA) and evaluate differences in the prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors between those with and without obstructive coronary disease.

Over 23 months, 866 patients with NACP underwent CTCA. Patients were separated into three groups for analysis depending on the degree of CAD on CTCA using the CAD-RADS (Coronary Artery Disease Reporting and Data System) scoring system; no evidence of CAD (group 1), a degree of CAD requiring medical therapy only (group 2), significant CAD defined as a CAD-RADS score 4A/B or 5 (group 3). Cardiovascular risk factors were compared between the groups.

We found 11.5% had significant CAD (group 3), 58.3% required medical therapy (group 2) and 30.1% had no CAD (group 1). There were 32 patients who required coronary revascularisation. Patients in group 2 and 3 were more likely to be male (p<0.001) and older (p<0.001) when compared to patients in group 1. Patients in group 3 were more likely to be hypertensive (p=0.008) and have higher Qrisk2 scores (p<0.001) when compared with those in group 1.

In conclusion, NICE guidelines for NACP may result in a significant proportion of patients with CAD being underdiagnosed, including some with severe disease requiring revascularisation. This analysis suggests age, male gender, Qrisk2 score and hypertension are predictors of CAD in this cohort.

Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors have demonstrated positive effects in heart failure (HF) patients. However, the effects of dapagliflozin in patients with decompensated HF remain unclear. This study aimed to compare the efficacy and safety of early and late dapagliflozin administration for decompensated HF. Data regarding dapagliflozin administration from 70 patients diagnosed with HF between December 2020 and November 2021 at a Japanese heart centre were analysed retrospectively. Propensity score matching was performed to compare the clinical outcomes of early and late dapagliflozin administration for decompensated HF. The primary end point was HF admission one year after dapagliflozin administration. The secondary end points were evaluated based on 24-hour urine volume, cardiac death, changes in ejection fraction (EF), blood pressure, glomerular filtration rate (GFR), haemoglobin and N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) levels, and side effects within one year of treatment. Fifteen matched pairs of patients were analysed. Admission rate within one year was significantly lower in the early administration group than in the late administration group (0 vs. 20%, p=0.03). Secondary end points were not significantly different between the two groups. In conclusion, early dapagliflozin administration significantly reduced HF admission within one year of treatment, although no differences were observed in 24-hour urine volume, cardiac death, EF, GFR, haemoglobin and NT-proBNP levels, and side effects.

This editorial series provides an in-depth exploration of research avenues in UK cardiology. It underscores the pivotal role of research in cardiology training and addresses the challenges faced by trainees in identifying apt research opportunities. This second article categorises available research roles, weighing their pros and cons, and outlines various supervisory styles to guide trainees in finding the optimal fit. It also summarises the primary research degrees, namely MPhil, MSc, MD, and PhD, tailored to diverse research goals.

International guidelines recommend ‘heart teams’ as the preferred method for decision-making. Heart team processes, mandatory attendees and investigations vary significantly between hospitals. We assessed outcomes following mitral valvular surgery in a tertiary referral centre with a dedicated mitral multi-disciplinary team (MDT).

This was a single-centre retrospective review of prospectively collected data within the ‘mitral database’ of mitral valvular disease patients. The ‘mitral MDT’ meeting involved pre-operative imaging and clinical data review, including mandatory transoesophageal echocardiography; recommendation for planned procedure, as well as an appropriate surgeon; and review of echocardiography images and clinical outcomes after surgery had been performed.

Between 2016 and 2020, 395 patients with mitral valvular disease were discussed at MDT. Of these, 310 patients underwent surgery. During the same time interval, 75 patients had surgery without MDT discussion: 84% of patients not discussed were urgent or emergent procedures and, in these, the most common pathology was degenerative mitral regurgitation (DMR, 46%) followed by infective endocarditis (30%). Of those discussed at MDT the pathology was: DMR 65%; mitral stenosis 14%; functional mitral regurgitation (MR) 5%; rheumatic MR 4%; endocarditis 4%; ischaemic MR 4%; and other pathologies 4%. For patients with DMR having elective surgery, the repair rate was 93% with mortality 2% and median (IQR) length of stay 5 (4–6) days. Postoperative transthoracic echocardiography demonstrated 99% of elective DMR patients had ≤2+ MR and <1% severe (3+) MR.

In conclusion, a dedicated ‘mitral MDT’ can enhance the safe delivery of care with consistently high repair rates for DMR patients with excellent outcomes.

One of the assessments for coronary atherosclerosis during cardiac computed tomography (CT) is coronary artery calcium (CAC) scoring. We conducted analysis on the determinants of high-risk coronary calcification, represented by CAC score, among women as a step to improve their outcomes and prognosis. This study involved a total of 1,129 female patients from a single centre. There were 127 patients (11.2%) classified as high risk (CAC ≥400). We found that a history of hypertension and diabetes are independent determinants of having a high-risk CAC score. Furthermore, this study demonstrated protective effects associated with physical activity and diastolic blood pressure. In conclusion, a history of hypertension, diabetes, and high uncontrolled systolic blood pressure might be used as cues for physicians to prioritise CAC assessment in women, despite the absence of chest pain or atypical symptoms.

Patients with bicuspid aortic valves (BAV) are predisposed to the development of aortic stenosis. We performed a pairwise meta-analysis, comparing the efficacy of transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR) versus surgical aortic valve replacement (SAVR) in patients with BAV.

Medical databases were queried to pool comparative studies of interest. Single-arm studies, conference presentations, animal studies, and studies that involved patients with tricuspid aortic morphology were excluded. Outcomes were pooled as risk ratios (RRs) with their 95% confidence intervals (CI) using the random effects model in R.

There were 60,858 patients with BAV (7,565 TAVR, 53,293 SAVR) included. Compared with SAVR, TAVR was associated with a significantly lower risk of 30-day major bleeding (RR 0.29, 95%CI 0.13 to 0.63, p=0.01) but a higher risk of new permanent pacemaker placement (RR 2.17, 95%CI 1.03 to 4.58, p=0.04). No significant differences were seen with other explored outcomes, including 30-day/mid-term mortality, stroke, acute kidney injury, major vascular complications, paravalvular leak, and conduction abnormalities.

In conclusion, in patients with BAV, TAVR is associated with a lower risk of 30-day major bleeding but has an increased risk for permanent pacemaker implantation when compared with SAVR. Future large-scale randomised trials comparing both the short- and long-term outcomes of SAVR and TAVR in patients with BAV are needed to assess the efficacy of each modality in a controlled population across long follow-up durations.

We describe a case of aortic rupture following transcatheter aortic valve implantation that was managed percutaneously.

Twenty years ago, Wald and Law¹ hypothesised that, if a combination pill could be made including aspirin, folic acid, a statin, and a low-dose diuretic, beta blocker and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor (thus, allowing for the simultaneous modification of four different risk factors: low-density lipoprotein [LDL]-cholesterol, blood pressure, homocysteine, and platelet function), and administered to everyone with existing cardiovascular disease and everyone over 55 years old, there would be an 88% reduction in ischaemic heart disease events, and an 80% reduction in stroke. One third of people over the age of 55 years would benefit by gaining an average of 11 years free from a cardiac event or stroke (subsequently termed the vaccination approach). They called this pill the ‘Polypill’, and concluded that treatment would be acceptably safe and, with widespread use, would have a greater impact on the prevention of disease in the Western world than any other single intervention. They noted that, while such a preventative strategy was radical, if such a formulation existed that prevented cancer and was safe, it would be widely used. “It is time to discard the view that risk factors need to be measured and treated individually if found to be abnormal. There is much to gain and little to lose by the widespread use of these drugs.” While subsequent works have shown that folic acid is not prognostically beneficial in preventing cardiovascular disease,² and that aspirin may not be beneficial overall in primary prevention settings,³ the concept of the combination pill was awakened in the public eye.

Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) is a common concern in the medical field due to its prevalence in an ageing western population. HFpEF is associated with significant morbidity and mortality not dissimilar to heart failure (HF) with reduced ejection fraction. N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) levels and echocardiography are the guideline diagnostic indicators of HF and their use is being examined in this study, with the aim to consider NT-proBNP thresholds performance as a rule-out test.

The current National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) and European guidelines recommend a single NT-proBNP threshold of >400 ng/L and >125 ng/L, respectively, to trigger echocardiographic assessment of HF in the outpatient setting. NT-proBNP levels are known to increase with age and worsening renal function. Unsurprisingly, a single threshold significantly increases demand for echocardiography. NT-proBNP measurements and echocardiograms performed within six months of each other were included for 469 patients with suspected HF.

A significant relationship between NT-proBNP levels and diastolic dysfunction was established. NT-proBNP levels and age are significant predictors of diastolic dysfunction in uni-variant (odds ratio 1.251, 95% confidence interval [CI], p<0.001) and multi-variant analysis (odds ratio 1.174, 95%CI, p=0.002). High negative-predictive values (NPVs) were obtained in severe diastolic impairment with the NPV being 95% at the European NT-proBNP cut-off of 125 ng/L, 95% at the NICE cut-off of 400 ng/L, 93% at 1,000 ng/L and 92% at 2,000 ng/L.

There is a significant association between NT-proBNP and diastolic dysfunction. NT-proBNP and age can predict diastolic dysfunction, and age can predict NT-proBNP levels, thus, these variables should be considered when considering referral for an echocardiogram. Most importantly, at higher NT-proBNP cut-offs the NPVs remain above 90% suggesting that different thresholds for subpopulations could yield a more effective strategy and mitigate the increased demand for echocardiography.

We aimed to describe the safety and tolerability of initiation of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) during hospitalisation with heart failure, and the frequency of, and reasons for, subsequent discontinuation.

In total, 934 patients who were not already prescribed a SGLT2i were hospitalised with heart failure, 77 (8%) were initiated on a SGLT2i a median of five (3–8.5) days after admission and two (0.5–5) days prior to discharge. During a median follow-up of 182 (124–250) days, SGLT2i were discontinued for 10 (13%) patients, most frequently due to deteriorating renal function. We observed reductions in body weight (mean difference 2.0 ± 0.48 kg, p<0.001), systolic blood pressure (mean difference 9.5 ± 1.9 kg, p<0.001) and small, non-significant reductions in estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR mean difference 2.0 ± 1.5 ml/min/1.73 m², p=0.19) prior to initiation, with further modest reductions in weight (mean difference 1.2 ± 0.4 kg, p=0.006) but not systolic blood pressure (2.4 ± 1.5 mmHg, p=0.13) or eGFR following initiation of SGLT2i. At discharge the proportion prescribed a beta blocker (44% to 92%), angiotensin-receptor/neprilysin inhibitor (6% to 44%) and mineralocorticoid-receptor antagonist (35% to 85%) had increased.

In conclusion, inpatient initiation of SGLT2i was safe and well tolerated in a real-world cohort of patients hospitalised with worsening HF. We observed a 13% frequency of discontinuation or serious side effects.

Pulmonary hypertension is a rare disease, associated with a significant deterioration in quality of life, usually not curable and with an ominous prognosis. It is classified into five groups according to similar pathophysiological, clinical, haemodynamic, and treatment options in each of them. However, group 5 is the least common, encompassing different types of aetiological, semiological, and management conditions. We present the case of a patient diagnosed with precapillary component pulmonary hypertension, with the finding of an arteriovenous fistula at the peripheral level. Interventional exclusion was performed, achieving remission of her disease.

Stroke is a major cause of mortality, morbidity and economic burden. Strokes can be thrombotic, embolic or haemorrhagic. The key risk factor for cardioembolic stroke is atrial fibrillation or flutter, and oral anticoagulation (OAC) is recommended in all but the lowest-risk patients with evidence of these arrhythmias. Risk factors for thrombotic stroke overlap strongly with those for other atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases (ASCVDs). Antiplatelet therapy (APT) should be considered in patients with established ASCVD to reduce risk of cardiovascular events, including stroke. Intensification from single to dual APT or a combination of APT with low-dose OAC can reduce ischaemic stroke risk further, but increases bleeding risk. Blood pressure and lipid profile should be controlled appropriately to guideline targets. In patients with diabetes, good glycaemic control can reduce stroke risk. Inflammation is another emerging target for stroke prevention. Overall, comprehensive assessment and pharmacological modification of risk factors are central to stroke prevention.

To review the utility of cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) in the management of hospital inpatients, we performed a retrospective review of all inpatient CMR scans performed over a six-month period at a tertiary referral cardiology centre. Patient demographics, indication for CMR imaging, results of the CMR scans and whether the results changed patient management were recorded. Change in management included medication changes, subsequent invasive procedures, or avoidance of such, and hospital discharge.

Overall, 169 patients were included in the study cohort, 66% were male, mean age was 57.1 years. The most common indication for inpatient CMR was to investigate for cardiomyopathy (53% of patients). The most prevalent diagnosis post-CMR in our cohort was ischaemic heart disease, including ischaemic cardiomyopathy and coronary artery disease. There was a complete change in diagnosis or additional diagnosis found in 29% of patients following CMR. Overall, inpatient CMR led to a change in management in 77% of patients; the most common being changes to medication regimen. CMR was well tolerated in 99% of patients and image quality was diagnostic in 93% of cine scans performed.

In conclusion, CMR is vital for the management of cardiology inpatients, having an impact that is at least as significant as in the management of outpatients.

Guidelines recommend decision-making using the heart team (HT) in complex patients considered for myocardial revascularisation, but there are little data on how this approach works in practice. We data-mined our electronic HT database and selected patients in whom the clinical question referred to revascularisation, and documented HT recommendations and their implementation.

We identified 154 patients (117 male), mean age 68.9 ± 11.4 years, discussed between February 2019 and December 2020. The clinical questions were coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) versus percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) (141 cases, 91%), and medical treatment versus revascularisation by PCI (eight cases, 6%) or by CABG (five cases, 3%).

HT recommended CABG in 55 cases (35%), PCI in 43 (28%), medical treatment in 15 (10%), and equipoise in seven (5%) and further investigations in 34 (22%): non-invasive imaging for ischaemia in 11 (32%), invasive coronary physiology studies in eight (24%), further clinical assessment in seven (20%), structural imaging for five (15%), invasive coronary angiography in two (6%), and an electrophysiology opinion in one case (3%).

Decisions were implemented in 135 cases (89%). The average time between the HT and the implementation of its decision was 80.5 ± 129.3 days. There were 17 deaths: 10 cardiac, six non-cardiac and one of unknown cause. Patients who survived were younger (68.6 ± 11.3 years) than those who died (73.8 ± 10.0 years, p = 0.03).

In conclusion, almost 90% of the decisions of the HT on myocardial revascularisation are implemented, while ischaemia testing is the main investigation required for decision-making. Recent data on the futility of such an approach have not yet permeated clinical practice.

In this study, we evaluated the change in left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP) after primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and its impact on in-hospital outcomes and 30-day and three-month quality of life (SAQ-7), ejection fraction (EF), and major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE). LVEDP ≥19 mmHg was taken as elevated LVEDP. In a sample of 318 patients, 18.9% (n=60) were females and mean age was 55.7 ± 10.52 years. Post-procedure elevated LVEDP was observed in 20.8% (n=66) with a mean reduction of 1.65 ± 4.35 mmHg. LVEDP declined in 39% (n=124) and increased in 10.7% (n=34). In-hospital mortality rate (9.1% vs. 2.4%, p=0.011), 30-day MACE (9.1% vs. 4.0%), and three-month MACE (21.2% vs. 5.6%) were found to be significantly higher among patients with elevated LVEDP, respectively. Elevated LVEDP was found to be associated with a reduced SAQ-7 score (89.84 ± 8.09 vs. 92.29 ± 3.03, p<0.001) and reduced (25–40%) EF (55.6% vs. 22.6%) at three-month follow-up. LVEDP declined acutely in a significant number of patients after primary PCI. Post-procedure elevated LVEDP was found to be associated with poor quality of life and an increased risk of immediate and short-term MACE.

Despite widespread use of statins and other lipid-lowering therapies for hypercholesterolaemia, cardiovascular (CV) mortality and morbidity remains high. The proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors, alirocumab and evolocumab, have been approved for use in patients with familial hypercholesterolaemia and high CV risk in the UK. We reviewed the records of patients at a large health board in Scotland, who were prescribed these agents, to determine their real-world efficacy and tolerability in routine clinical care.

Primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PPCI) remains the gold-standard treatment for ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). Femoral arterial access for the procedure may be an ideal option in patients who are haemodynamically unwell. However, it is associated with rare, but life-threatening, complications such as perforation, leading to retroperitoneal haemorrhage. We present the case of a man in his 50s, admitted with cardiac arrest secondary to inferolateral STEMI. Successful PPCI was performed via right femoral artery, with access gained under ultrasound guidance. However, the patient deteriorated and was diagnosed to have a retroperitoneal haematoma secondary to femoral artery perforation. Additional arterial access via left brachial artery was obtained, and a covered stent was deployed successfully in the right femoral artery with satisfactory haemostasis. The patient recovered successfully and was discharged two weeks later. Early recognition of such complications is imperative to adequate management and percutaneous treatment is a viable option for such situations, in comparison with open surgical repair.

Persistent cardiac arrhythmias are readily amenable to detection by performing a standard electrocardiogram (ECG), but detection of transient (paroxysmal) arrhythmias has long been a significant cause of frustration to both doctors and patients. Often a significantly symptomatic arrhythmia is experienced by the patient but terminates before an ECG can be recorded to allow diagnosis. Prognostically important treatment is often delayed, and recurrent symptomatic attacks represent a high morbidity in patients’ lives and result in a burden on emergency services, who often arrive after the arrhythmia has terminated with no resultant progress in making a diagnosis.

Another area of concern has been the presence of asymptomatic, but clinically important, arrhythmias that can go unnoticed by people experiencing them and may result in permanent harm; asymptomatic paroxysmal atrial fibrillation in patients with high CHA₂DS₂-VASc scores being the most common example.

Both these issues are now being importantly addressed by the widespread availability of portable ECG recording devices, which patients can either manually activate themselves or program to automatically detect abnormal arrhythmias. Information on the range of devices available and their strengths and weaknesses is limited. This article aims to provide a helpful overview for patients and doctors advising them.

Andreas Grüntzig, an ardent angiologist crafted an indeflatable sausage-shaped dual-lumen balloon-catheter, designed its delivery to the heart, launched minimally invasive coronary intervention and taught by beaming live demonstration. Subsequent advances are just incremental tweaks and tinkers around this fully formed framework from 1978. The near-immediate or instant feedback learning process by which the heart responds to any new invasive procedural variation facilitates each new change; be it drug-eluting stent, drug-coated balloon, or both in different combinations and permutations. Now with Grüntzig’s balloon armed with an antiproliferative drug, it could dominate the field once more, as he originally envisaged.

Thrombus is the main finding in most patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS), the type of which potentially impacts the end result of the interventional procedure in terms of no reflow and edge dissection. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is considered a precise intra-vascular tool to image thrombi and characterise its properties. We aimed to study the impact of thrombus type, as defined by OCT, on procedural outcome in ACS patients. In this retrospective study we enrolled 100 patients who were treated by percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with the guidance of OCT. We recorded demographic and clinical data of the whole studied cohort. Angiographic details and procedural data were noted. Baseline OCT study was performed before intervention and repeated post-intervention. Plaque characterisation was identified, and thrombi were defined as red or white thrombi. Acute angiographic outcome was defined with special emphasis on no reflow.

Male patients and ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) patients more often had white thrombi (58.1% and 71.2%, respectively). Cases with red thrombi had longer pain duration, which was statistically significant. Edge dissection was more frequent with red thrombus, 44.7% versus 32.1% with white thrombus, but the difference is not statistically significant, while 17% of patients with white thrombi were complicated by no-reflow phenomenon versus only 4.3% in patients with red thrombi, and this difference was statistically significant.

In conculsion, OCT-guided PCI is feasible and safe in ACS settings. OCT-guided intra-procedural differentiation of thrombus type is potentially beneficial in predicting acute procedural outcome.

Remote delivery of cardiovascular rehabilitation (CR) has been vital during the COVID pandemic when restrictions have been placed on face-to-face services. In the future, CR services are likely to offer alternatives to centre-based CR, including digital options. However, little is known about the digital access and confidence of CR service users, or their CR delivery preferences.

A telephone survey was conducted of those referred for CR in the London boroughs of Lambeth and Southwark (n=60) in which questions were asked about digital access and confidence, as well as current and future delivery preferences for their CR.

Between March and July 2021, 60 service-users met the inclusion criteria and were recruited for a telephone survey (mean age 60 ± 11.2 years). Of those, 82% had regular access to a smartphone, 60% to a computer or laptop and 43% to a tablet device. A high proportion of service users perceived themselves to be ‘extremely’ or ‘somewhat’ confident to use their devices. Thirty-nine (65%) service users would currently prefer a face-to-face assessment, rising to 82% once the perceived COVID-19 threat and restrictions are less. Preferences for accessing exercise were equally split between face-to-face and remotely supported independent exercise, with low interest in digital options. Delivery preferences for education, relaxation and peer support were more heterogeneous with interest in all delivery options.

In conclusion, digital access and confidence in CR service users was good. Redesigning CR services to offer more rehabilitation delivery options, aligned with patient choice may increase uptake and further trials are needed to assess the impact.

Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) is used to assess for evidence of infective endocarditis (IE). Inappropriate patient selection leads to significant burden on healthcare services. We aimed to assess effectiveness of cardiology consultant vetting of TTE requests for suspected IE in reduction of unnecessary scans. All inpatient TTE requests querying IE over a six-month period were vetted. Clinical information and pathology results were reviewed, and requests were either accepted, deferred, or rejected. A total of 103 patients had TTE requested: 39 (38%) were accepted for scan; four cases of IE were confirmed on TTE. There were 62% of patient requests rejected and not scanned, and no cases of IE subsequently diagnosed. Thus, consultant vetting of TTE requests for suspected IE is an effective way to safely reduce unnecessary scans and enables cost-effective streamlining of echocardiography services.

This paper summarises ‘Share The Pressure’, a project that developed and piloted a scalable model for engaging patients on the benefits of risk factor control for healthy ageing; training healthcare professionals (HCPs) in cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk communication; and improving the shared decision-making process between nurses, pharmacists and patients. The study features the use of a CVD risk tool called Heart Age, which has been shown to effectively motivate risk factor reduction in individuals.

The study team engaged virtually with patients and HCPs through established relationships within the community, third sector, charities, and social media. In addition, patients living with high blood pressure (hypertension) participated via online focus groups and surveys, which provided insight into patients’ preferences for conveying CVD risk, quantification of intervention benefits, side effects and processes to facilitate shared decision-making.

This insight gained from the focus group and survey data informed adaptations made to the Heart Age tool to provide ‘years off’ – or lowering of heart age – benefits for different aspects of blood pressure lowering, focusing on the independent and joint benefits of medication management and lifestyle.

The study piloted a training programme for nurses and pharmacists to support them in communicating and framing risk and intervention benefits.

The study trained 1,148 HCPs from 37 countries over 17 sessions. Post-training survey results of HCPs indicated an increase in self-rated knowledge and a strong likelihood of applying information learned to their clinical practice. In addition, the Heart Age users found the personalised report and Heart Age test results very motivating for patients with high blood pressure.

Transcatheter edge-to-edge repair (TEER) was first performed in 2003, and is now established across the developed world as an effective, minimally invasive treatment option for patients with mitral regurgitation (MR). Multiple large registries have established the efficacy of mitral TEER in patients with primary or degenerative MR in whom surgery is considered prohibitive or high risk, while ongoing randomised-controlled trials will determine its role in younger and lower-risk patients. In patients with secondary or functional MR, in whom mitral valve surgery is not routinely recommended, the pivotal COAPT trial showed a profound reduction in both mortality and heart failure hospitalisation in carefully selected patients.

NHS England approved the routine commissioning of mitral TEER in 2019, and following a substantial delay, due in large part to the COVID pandemic, the procedure is now widely available across the UK. This review article describes the TEER procedure, currently available devices, the underlying evidence base, and the key facts needed for clinicians to understand who, how, and where to refer patients for consideration of mitral TEER. The emerging role of TEER in patients with severe symptomatic tricuspid regurgitation is also considered.

Thoracic aortic aneurysms are often asymptomatic until patients present with a life-threatening acute aortic syndrome. The vulnerability of an aorta to an acute aortic syndrome is determined by cross-sectional diameter and underlying aetiological factors, such as genotype or acquired disease. Screening the general population for thoracic aneurysms presents multiple resource issues including the availability of imaging modalities. Targeted screening of high-risk groups provides the only currently pragmatic solution. Opportunistic imaging through lung cancer screening programmes could pick up a proportion. Until we have a comprehensive screening programme it is incumbent on all healthcare professionals to have a low threshold for considering acute aortic pathologies when reviewing patients presenting with chest pain.

Surgical aortic valve replacement (SAVR) prolongs life and improves its quality in patients with severe aortic stenosis (AS). Unplanned SAVR is a failure of AS screening and follow-up programmes. We identified all elective, first, isolated SAVRs performed between 1 January and 31 December 2019 in a Welsh tertiary cardiac centre, and documented the clinical and echocardiographic variables, and reasons for unplanned SAVR.

Of 140 isolated SAVR, 37 (26%) were unplanned (16 female, mean age 72.3 ± 8.4 years). Twenty had been on the SAVR waiting list and had expedited operations because of concerns about the severity of the AS (12 patients), or because of acute (four patients) or chronic (four patients) left ventricular failure (LVF). Of the 17 not on the waiting list, AS was known in seven: three had acute pulmonary oedema while under follow-up with ‘moderate AS’, one had been referred but developed pulmonary oedema while waiting for a surgical outpatient appointment, one refused SAVR but was subsequently admitted with acute pulmonary oedema and accepted SAVR, one was admitted directly from home because concerns about worsening AS, and one had infective endocarditis with severe aortic regurgitation. Of 10 patients with a new diagnosis of AS, five presented with LVF, four with angina and in three there was a history of syncope (p=0.003 vs. known AS; multiple symptoms). Survival, age, Canadian Cardiovascular Society (CCS) and New York Heart Association (NYHA) class, number of risk factors, peak and mean aortic valve (AV) gradients, AV area, and stroke volume index were not different between patients who had planned versus unplanned SAVR, or with known or new AS. Patients with a new diagnosis of AS had longer pre-operative wait (22.3 ± 9.3 vs. 6.0 ± 10.3 days, p<0.001).

In conclusion, a quarter of SAVRs are unplanned and half are in patients without a prior diagnosis of AS. Unplanned SAVR is associated with prolonged length of hospital stay and with a history of syncope, but other conventional clinical and echocardiographic parameters do not differ between patients undergoing planned versus unplanned SAVR.

Undertaking a period of research in cardiology is considered a vital part of training. This has many advantages including enhancing skills that better equip the clinician for patient care. However, in modern cardiology training, the feasibility and necessity of undertaking a period of formal research during training should be considered on an individual basis. The first of this four-part editorial series will explore the benefits of and obstacles to pursuing research in cardiology, with the aim of equipping the reader with an understanding of the options around research during cardiology training in the UK.

At least 5% of GP and accident and emergency (A&E) attendances are undifferentiated chest pain. Rapid access chest pain clinics (RACPC) offer urgent guideline-directed management of suspected cardiac chest pain. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) recommends computed tomography coronary angiography (CTCA) as a first-line investigation. We evaluated the effectiveness and efficiency of a local RACPC.

Retrospective analysis of unselected referrals to a RACPC in the Northeast of England was conducted for 2021. Baseline demographics and major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) were compared between typical, atypical and non-angina. Anatomical and functional imaging results were recorded. Backward stepwise binary logistic regression modelled obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD) incidence.

There were 373/401 (93.0%) patients with chest pain; 139 (37.3%) typical angina, 122 (32.8%) atypical angina and 112 (30.0%) non-angina. Typical angina patients were older (p<0.001) with more cardiovascular risk factors (p<0.001) and increased risk of obstructive CAD (adjusted odds ratio [OR] 6.27, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.93 to 13.38) and MACE (9.4%, p=0.029). In total, 164 (44.0%) had invasive coronary angiography (ICA) within 7.4 ± 4.8 weeks; 19.5% had normal coronary arteries, 26.2% had obstructive CAD and 22.6% proceeded to invasive haemodynamic assessment ± PCI without major procedural complications. There were 39 (10.5%) who had CTCA within 34.6 ± 18.1 weeks; 25.6% needed ICA to clarify diagnosis.

In conclusion, typical angina patients were at heightened risk of cardiovascular events. In the absence of adequate CTCA capacity, greater reliance on ICA still facilitated accurate diagnosis with options for immediate revascularisation, timely and safely, in the right patients. Better risk stratification and expansion of non-invasive imaging can improve local RACPC service delivery in the wider Northeast cardiology network.

A 62-year-old man presented complaining of atrial fibrillation.  Plain chest radiography and contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CT) revealed a large fusiform aneurysmal dilatation of the upper segment of the superior vena cava (SVC) without evidence of rupture, thrombosis, or pulmonary embolism. It was decided to treat the patient conservatively with follow-up imaging recommended.

We sought to remedy the limited guidance that is available to support the resuscitation of patients with the Impella Cardiac Power (CP) and 5.0 devices during episodes of cardiac arrest or life-threatening events that can result in haemodynamic decompensation.

In a specialist tertiary referral centre we developed, by iteration, a novel resuscitation algorithm for Impella emergencies, which we validated through simulation and assessment by our multi-disciplinary team. A mechanical life support course was established to provide theoretical and practical education, combined with simulation to consolidate knowledge and confidence in algorithm use. We assessed these measures using confidence scoring, a key performance indicator (the time taken to resolve a suction event) and a multiple-choice question (MCQ) examination.

Following this intervention, median confidence score increased from 2 (interquartile range [IQR] 2 to 3) to 4 (IQR 4 to 4) out of a maximum of 5 (n=53, p<0.0001). Theoretical knowledge of the Impella, as assessed by median MCQ score, increased from 12 (IQR 10 to 13) to 13 (12 to 14) out of a maximum of 17 (p<0.0001).

The use of a bespoke Impella resuscitation algorithm reduced the mean time taken to identify and resolve a suction event by 53 seconds (95% confidence interval 36 to 99, p=0.0003).

In conclusion, we present an evidence-based resuscitation algorithm that provides both technical and medical guidance to clinicians responding to life-threatening events in Impella recipients.

Several studies have shown that elevated serum ferritin level is associated with a higher risk of coronary artery disease. Recently, it has been shown that high serum ferritin levels in men are independently correlated with an increased risk of cardiovascular mortality. This study aimed to investigate the possible correlation between the initial serum ferritin level and in-hospital mortality in patients presenting with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI).

This retrospective cohort study included 890 patients who presented with acute STEMI and underwent successful primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PPCI) according to the standard techniques during the period from 1 May 2020 to 1 May 2021. At the time of admission, an initial serum ferritin level was measured in all patients. Comparison between initial ferritin levels was made between two groups: died and survived. Propensity matching was performed to exclude confounding factors effect.

Forty-one patients had in-hospital mortality. There was no significant difference between both groups regarding baseline clinical characteristics. Initial serum ferritin levels were higher in deceased patients, even after propensity matching.

In conclusion, even after propensity matching, initial ferritin levels were significantly higher in patients who died after being admitted for STEMI.

Cardiac catheterisation is a common invasive procedure. Transradial vascular access is the default approach due to a reduced risk of vascular and bleeding complications. Although transradial vascular access complications are infrequent it is important to identify, mitigate and manage them appropriately when they arise. Several techniques have been identified to try to reduce their occurrence pre- and post-procedurally, as well as manage any complication sequalae. This review article summarises the incidence, type, prevention and management of complications encountered in transradial vascular access.

Atrial fibrillation (AF) is a common arrhythmia associated with poor outcomes. N-3 fatty acids have been shown to provide significant cardiovascular risk reduction, but they may exacerbate the risk of AF. The pathway by which N-3 fatty acids may be arrhythmogenic is unknown. One possible mechanism involves cardiac chamber morphology alteration. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of icosapent ethyl (IPE) on left atrial (LA) size and left ventricular (LV) mass.

This study used coronary computed tomographic angiography images gathered from the Effect of Icosapent Ethyl on Progression of Coronary Atherosclerosis (EVAPORATE) trial. EVAPORATE was a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study finding a significant reduction in coronary atherosclerosis progression in patients with residually elevated triglycerides despite statin therapy on 4 g IPE daily versus 4 g placebo daily. Computed tomography images were used to measure LA size and LV mass at 0 and 18 months.

Of 80 enrolled patients, 68 were included in the final analysis. Baseline demographics and risk factors were similar between IPE and placebo cohorts. LA anterior-posterior diameter measured on axial (p=0.51) and sagittal (p=0.52) orientations were not different over time. Also, there was no difference between groups in the change in LA volume (p=0.84). Change in LV mass was similar between groups (p=0.13).

In conclusion, this study did not detect differences in LA size or LV mass over 18 months between patients on 4 g daily IPE versus placebo.

The SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) pandemic brought disruption to cardiac rehabilitation (CR) services in the UK, requiring innovation and use of remote interventions. This retrospective longitudinal study compares single-centre CR service data across three time periods: ‘pre’ (June 2019 to December 2019), ‘during’ (January 2020 to May 2020) and ‘post’ (June 2020 to December 2020), evaluating adaptations in programme delivery and subsequent effect on efficiency.

There were 614 patients (72.7% male) identified between June 2019 and December 2020. Eligible CR referrals reduced 30.3% and encountered >50% decrease in engagement ‘during’ the pandemic, compared with ‘pre’ pandemic. The ‘post’ pandemic hybrid redesign led to a significant reduction in hospital discharge to CR contact (mean 5.39 days, p=0.001), and time spent in CR (41.33 days, p=0.001) when compared with ‘pre’ and ‘during’ figures. CR engagement significantly increased ‘post’ pandemic for ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI)/non-STEMI (NSTEMI)/acute coronary syndrome (ACS) (56%, p=0.02) and ‘post’ cardiac surgery (76%, p=0.015). Referrals to cardiac psychology increased >50% ‘post’ pandemic (7.8%, p=0.038).

A ‘post’ pandemic hybrid CR programme is effective at reducing wait times, increasing engagement and reducing time to completion of CR, compared with ‘pre’ and ‘during’ pandemic figures. A significant increase in cardiac psychology referrals ‘post’ pandemic highlights the importance of psychology support within CR.

Metabolic syndrome (MS) is frequently associated with an increased body mass index (BMI), and related to an adverse cardiovascular prognosis. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the prevalence and association between MS, obesity and subclinical atherosclerosis (SA).

This cross-sectional study included healthy adults, allocated to normal weight (NW) when BMI <25 kg/m², overweight (OW) BMI ≥25 and <30 kg/m², or obese (OB) BMI ≥30 kg/m² groups. Presence of MS was defined according to National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) criteria. SA was evidenced with vascular ultrasound. Association between SA, obesity and MS, was evaluated by logistic regression models.

There were 3,716 patients studied (female 66.7%, mean age 47 ± 17.5 years). According to BMI, NW represented 28.2%, OW 39.4% and OB 32.4%. MS showed a strong correspondence with BMI (NW 4.9%, OW 21.4%, OB 49.7%; p<0.001). SA was more prevalent in each group when MS was present: NW (25.4% vs. 45.1%, p<0.005), OW (43.2% vs. 58.9%, p<0.0001) and OB (44.2% vs. 57.8%, p<0.0001). Logistic-regression models showed an independent association of SA with MS criteria (arterial hypertension p<0.001; high-density lipoprotein [HDL] p<0.05; and triglycerides p<0.005) adjusted by gender, age and BMI.

In conclusion, overweight and obesity are frequent and strongly linked with MS and SA. Prevalence of SA is high, and is independently associated with MS components. However, BMI could not retain statistical significance in the multi-variate analyses.

This educational review provides information about the epidemiology of diabetes and heart failure (diabetic cardiomyopathy) and the challenges in diagnosis and screening. Details on how to investigate patients with imaging and other modalities are discussed, as well as an update regarding the efficacy and safety of novel agents for treatment of diabetic cardiomyopathy.

Women represented 29% of cardiology trainees and 16% of consultants in the UK in 2021. While the numbers of women in cardiology have increased over the last 20 years, these proportions remain among the lowest in comparison with other medical specialties. This essay aims to explore the contributing factors behind, and plans to reduce, gender disparity in cardiology.

PubMed was searched using keywords such as ‘gender’, ‘inequality’, ‘women’, ‘training’ and ‘cardiology’. Retrieved studies were screened for themes contributing towards, and strategies to overcome, gender inequality within cardiology.

Reasons for gender inequality included poor perceptions of cardiology as a female-friendly specialty, experiences of gender-based discrimination, inflexible working hours, poor work–life balance, and lack of female role models. Recommended resolutions should target these themes; increase opportunities for flexible working hours, enforce a discrimination-free workplace culture, and encourage mentoring relationships between female senior and junior doctors. Improving the experience of the existing female workforce in cardiology will have a knock-on effect on the perceptions of trainees rotating through departments, in addition to initiatives promoting cardiology as a female-friendly specialty.

In conclusion, promoting gender equality within cardiology remains an ongoing challenge. Nationwide efforts to increase retention and improve perceptions should target issues highlighted by the voices of women.

While statins are the gold standard for lipid-lowering therapies, newer therapies, such as PCSK9 inhibitors, have also demonstrated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) reduction, but with a similar or better safety profile. Conflicting guidance has contributed to a low uptake. More up-to-date, evidence-led guidance supports greater use of newer therapies, particularly in combination with statins, to reduce LDL-C to levels shown to be effective in trials. The aim of this study was to determine how such guidance can be implemented more effectively in the UK.

Using a modified Delphi approach, a panel of healthcare professionals with an interest in the management of dyslipidaemia developed 27 statements across four key themes. These were used to form an online survey that was distributed to healthcare professionals working in cardiovascular care across the UK. Stopping criteria included 100 responses received, a seven-month window for response (September 2021 to March 2022), and 90% of statements passing the predefined consensus threshold of 75%.

A total of 109 responses were analysed with 23 statements achieving consensus (four statements <75%). Variance was observed across respondent role, and by UK region. From the high degree of consensus, seven recommendations were established as to how evidence-based guidance can be delivered, including a call for personalised therapy strategies and simplification of LDL-C goals, which should be achieved within as short a time as possible.

We present the angiographic findings of a case of myocardial infarction associated with COVID-19 with a heavy burden of thrombus, despite only minor obstructive coronary disease.

There has been suggestion that vitamin D may play a role in protection against severe infection with COVID-19. In this article a potential mechanism involving angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is proposed.

Acute type A aortic dissection is a devastating aortic disease associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Clinicians should maintain a high degree of suspicion in patients presenting with sudden-onset chest pain, although the diagnosis may be confounded by the broad spectrum of attendant symptoms and signs. Accurate and timely identification of the acute dissection is of paramount importance to ensure suitable patients are referred promptly for definitive surgical management. This review focuses on the diagnosis of acute type A aortic dissection and discusses the haematological tests, and electrocardiographic, echocardiographic and radiological investigations necessary to confirm the diagnosis and assess for associated complications. The acute medical management of patients with acute type A dissection is also reviewed.

Aortic dissection is a life-threatening condition that is often under-recognised. In the first in a series of articles about the condition, the epidemiology, pathology, classification and clinical presentation of aortic dissection are discussed.

Around 100 years ago, the first link between infective endocarditis (IE) and dental procedures was hypothesised; shortly after, physicians began to use antibiotics in an effort to reduce the risk of developing IE. Whether invasive dental procedures are linked to the development of IE, and antibiotic prophylaxis (AP) is effective, have since remained topics of controversy. This controversy, in large part, has been due to the lack of prospective randomised clinical trial data. From this suboptimal position, guideline committees representing different societies and countries have struggled to reach an optimal position on whether AP use is needed for invasive dental procedures (or other procedures) and in whom. We present the findings from an investigation involving a large US patient database, published earlier this year, by Thornhill and colleagues. The work featured the use of both a cohort and case-crossover design and demonstrated there was a significant temporal association between invasive dental procedures and development of IE in high-IE-risk patients. Furthermore, the study showed that AP use was associated with a reduced risk of IE. Additional data, also published this year, from a separate study using nationwide hospital admissions data from England by Thornhill’s group, showed that certain dental and non-dental procedures were significantly associated with the subsequent development of IE. Two other investigations have reported similar concerns for non-dental invasive procedures and risk of IE. Collectively, the results of this work support a re-evaluation of the current position taken by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) and other organisations that are responsible for publishing practice guidelines.

Sarcoidosis is a multi-factorial inflammatory disease characterised by the formation of non-caseating granulomas in the affected organs. Cardiac involvement can be the first, and occasionally the only, manifestation of sarcoidosis. The prevalence of cardiac sarcoidosis (CS) is higher than previously suspected. CS is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Thus, early diagnosis is critical to introducing immunosuppressive therapy that could prevent an adverse outcome. Endomyocardial biopsy (EMB) has limited utility in the diagnostic pathway of patients with suspected CS. As a result, advanced imaging modalities, i.e. cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography with ¹⁸F-Fluorodeoxyglucose/computed tomography scan (¹⁸F-FDG-PET/CT), have emerged as alternative tools for diagnosing CS and might be considered the new ‘gold standard’. This focused review will discuss the epidemiology and pathology of CS, when to suspect and evaluate CS, highlight the complementary roles of cardiac MRI and ¹⁸F-FDG-PET/CT, and their diagnostic and prognostic values in CS, in the current content of guidelines for the diagnostic workflow of CS.

Untreated heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) has a one-year mortality rate of 40%. The DAPA-HF trial found that dapagliflozin reduces mortality and heart failure (HF) hospitalisation by 17% and 30%, respectively. We describe the initiation and real-world tolerability of dapagliflozin for the management of HFrEF at a large university teaching hospital in central London.

We reviewed 118 HFrEF patients initiated on dapagliflozin from January to August 2021 in both inpatient and outpatient settings using the Trust’s electronic records. A total of 69 (58.4%) patients were on optimised HF pharmacological therapy upon initiation of dapagliflozin. Dapagliflozin was discontinued in 12 (13.0%) patients. Twenty-three (42.6%) patients either discontinued or had a dose reduction in loop diuretics post-initiation of dapagliflozin.

In clinical practice, early initiation of dapagliflozin is safe, well-tolerated and resulted in earlier discontinuation or dose reduction in loop diuretics, providing opportunities to further optimise other HF medicines. This retrospective observational study supports the safety of the updated European Society of Cardiology (ESC) guidelines to initiate all four key HF medicines to minimise delays in HF treatment optimisation, which could translate to reduced National Health Service healthcare costs through fewer HF hospitalisations.

A 33-year-old woman, with palpitations since the age of 15, was referred to a cardiology consultation due to very frequent ventricular extrasystoles with morphology of left bundle branch block, inferior frontal axis, late precordial transition, rS in V1, R in V6 and rS in DI. She had pectus excavatum. The cardiac magnetic resonance showed severe pectus excavatum associated with exaggerated cardiac levoposition, compression and deformation of the right cardiac chambers. However, the patient became pregnant, and follow-up was delayed.

Low high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) concentration is among the strongest independent risk factors for cardiovascular disease, however, studies to assess the cardioprotective effect of normal or high HDL-C level are lacking.

To determine the prognostic impact of initial serum HDL-C level on in-hospital major adverse cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events (MACCE) and the one-year all-cause mortality in patients presenting with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) we performed a retrospective analysis of the data from 1,415 patients presenting with STEMI in a tertiary-care centre equipped with a 24-hour-ready catheterisation laboratory. The period from June 2014 to June 2017 was reviewed with a follow-up as regards one-year all-cause mortality. Patients were divided into two groups according to HDL-C level. HDL-C <40 mg/dL (2.22 mmol/L) was considered low, while HDL-C ≥40 mg/dL was considered normal.

There were 1,109 patients with low HDL-C, while 306 had normal HDL-C levels, which was statistically significant (p<0.001). Total MACCE and all-cause mortality were significantly lower in patients with normal HDL-C (p=0.03 and p=0.01, respectively).

In conclusion, this retrospective study to assess the prognostic effect of HDL-C in patients presenting with STEMI, found normal HDL-C level was associated with lower in-hospital MACCE and all-cause mortality at one-year follow-up.

Acute heart failure (AHF) is associated with 9.3% mortality. Depression and hopelessness are prevalent. We conducted an online survey using Survey Monkey, via the UK Heart Failure (HF) Investigators Research Network of 309 cardiologists, in 2021, to determine: what proportion of UK centres offer outpatient-based management (OPM) for AHF including the use of parenteral diuretics; and what proportion of HF services have clinical psychology support.

There were 51 services that responded, and an estimated 25,135 patients with AHF receive inpatient care per year (median 600 per site). There are 2,631 patients (median 50 per site) treated per year with OPM (9.7% of the population of AHF patients). While 65% of centres provided access to OPM, only 20% have a clinical psychology service.

In conclusion, nearly 10% of patients with AHF receive outpatient-based intravenous diuretic therapy. Only 20% of hospitals have a clinical psychology service for patients who suffer from HF.

Atrial fibrillation (AF) and diabetes are increasingly prevalent worldwide, both increasing stroke risk. AF can be detected by patient-led electrocardiogram (ECG) screening applications. Understanding patients’ views around AF screening is important when considering recommendations, and this study explores these views where there is an existing diagnosis of diabetes.

Nine semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with participants from a previous screening study (using a mobile ECG device), who were identified with AF. Thematic analysis was completed using NVivo 12 Plus software and themes were identified within each research question for clarity.

Themes were identified in four groups:

1. patients’ understanding of AF – the ‘concept of irregularity’ and ‘consideration of consequence’;
2. views on screening – ‘screening as a resource-intensive initiative’, ‘fear of outcomes from screening’ and ‘expectations of screening reliability’;
3. views on incorporating screening into routine care – ‘importance of screening convenience’; and
4. views on the screening tool – ‘technology as a barrier’ and ‘feasibility of the mobile ECG recording device for screening’.

In conclusion, eliciting patients’ views has demonstrated the need for clear and concise information around the delivery of an AF diagnosis. Screening initiatives should factor in location, convenience, personnel, and cost, all of which were important for promoting screening inclusion.

The COVID-19 pandemic required a radical change in healthcare delivery methods, including the remote delivery of many outpatient services. We aimed to understand patient satisfaction with telephone consultations.

Patients who had undergone a cardiology telephone consultation between 24 February and 19 July 2021 were asked to complete a survey. The survey assessed their satisfaction with the consultation and their preference between remote and face-to-face consultation. The 56 responses demonstrated high levels of satisfaction with 56% agreeing they were “completely satisfied” with the consultation compared with 5% who disagreed. However, 63% would have preferred a face-to-face appointment compared with 22% preferring a telephone consultation.

No patterns were observed that might help to guide who should be offered the different modalities of consultation; to maximise patient satisfaction a flexible and individualised approach is likely to be required.

Elevated cholesterol/lipid levels, especially low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) are known to contribute to the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). The attainment of lipid targets is known to be suboptimal both globally and locally. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a lipid management pathway (LMP) in supporting attainment of lipid targets following an acute coronary syndrome (ACS) in a local cohort of cardiac rehabilitation (CR) patients.

Quantitative data were retrospectively collected from 54 CR patient records. Local lipid target attainment was benchmarked against national guidelines and pre-pathway implementation audit results.

The number of admission lipid profiles increased by 24.8% to 79.6% following implementation of the LMP. There was a 31% improvement in the number of patients achieving either a 50% reduction in LDL-C or an LDL-C level of <1.4 mmol/L. In conclusion, the LMP had a significant positive impact upon the attainment of lipid goals.

We report the case of a 45-year-old man presenting with worsening shortness of breath and chest tightness on a background of type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension and stable angina. He felt generally unwell and had a productive cough two weeks prior to presentation. Initial examination found quiet heart sounds and reduced air entry bi-basally on auscultation. Electrocardiography (ECG) demonstrating lateral T-wave flattening and ongoing chest tightness directed management towards an acute coronary syndrome (ACS). However, negative troponin I and positive D-dimer prompted investigation with computed tomography pulmonary angiogram (CTPA) identifying a 3.5 cm thickness pericardial effusion and no pulmonary embolism. Initial COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swabs were negative for SARS-CoV-2. Echocardiography identified features consistent with cardiac tamponade prompting pericardiocentesis. Over 1,000 ml of straw-coloured aspirate was drained with significant clinical improvement, and the patient was discharged with plans for urgent outpatient cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Interestingly, despite multiple negative nasopharyngeal swabs for COVID-19, serum antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 were detected.

Dual antiplatelet therapy is recommended for secondary prevention of ischaemic events in coronary artery disease. Some patients, who may be at high bleed risk if other factors are present, should be considered for gastroprotection. In our survey, we assessed whether gastroprotection was prescribed for hospital inpatients, especially high-risk patients, who were receiving dual antiplatelet therapy at discharge, and the type of gastroprotection prescribed. We found that over 13 months, a total of 1,693 patient episodes were prescribed dual antiplatelet therapy at discharge, of which 71% also received gastroprotection. Of the patient episodes who were not prescribed gastroprotection, 46% (223/483) met the criterion of age as a risk factor for gastroprotection. A further 30 episodes met other risk criteria of certain concomitant drugs or prior comorbidity. There is a need among clinicians and pharmacy teams within the hospital for recognition and management of this opportunity to improve the care of these patients.

We report the case of an elderly woman with recent hip replacement surgery that presented with cardiogenic shock. The initial echocardiogram was suggestive of mid-ventricular Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, which was later confirmed due to absence of severe coronary artery disease and complete resolution of the patient’s cardiac systolic dysfunction. Fluid and inotrope administration in the acute phase, and guideline-directed medical therapy for heart failure, thereafter, led to full recovery.

Disparities in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality are among the leading health and social care concerns in the UK. The disruption of the COVID-19 pandemic to health services has further placed cardiovascular care and the respective patient communities at the sharp end, not least in exacerbating existing health inequalities across service interfaces and patients’ health outcomes. While the pandemic engenders unprecedented constraints within established cardiology services, it conduces to a unique opportunity to embrace novel transformative approaches within the way we deliver patient care in maintaining best practices during and beyond the crisis. As the first step in navigating toward the ‘new norm’, a clear recognition of the challenges inherent in cardiovascular health inequalities is critical, primarily in preventing the widening of extant inequalities as cardiology workforces continue to build back fairer. We may consider the challenges through the lens of health services’ diverse facets, including the aspects of universality, interconnectivity, adaptability, sustainability, and preventability. This article explores the pertinent challenges and provides a focused narration concerning potential measures to foster equitable and resilient cardiology services that are patient centred in the post-pandemic landscape.

This audit compared the management of patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) admitted to a district general hospital (DGH) during comparative eight month periods before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. The periods studied were from 1 February 2019 to 30 September 2019 and between the same dates in 2020. We investigated differences in mortality and patient characteristics (age, gender and new or prior diagnosis). For patients who survived to discharge and who were not referred to palliative care, we also investigated whether there were differences in rates of echocardiography and prescription of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists and beta blockers.

We found that the number of cases was lower during the pandemic and there was a lower mortality rate that was not statistically significant. There was a higher proportion of new cases (odds ratio [OR] 2.21, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.24 to 3.94, p=0.008) and of female patients (OR 2.03, 95%CI 1.14 to 3.61, p=0.019). For survivors, there was a non-significant decrease in prescription rates for ACE inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor antagonists (81.6% vs. 71.4%, p=0.137) that was not seen for beta blockers. The length of stay was increased and there was also an increase in the interval between admission and echocardiography in patients who were newly diagnosed. Regardless of time period, the time before echocardiography was significantly associated with length of stay.

SARS-CoV-2 is an emerging cause of viral myocarditis that generates multiple complications, such as dilated cardiomyopathy. We describe a young, obese male patient with severe myocardial involvement by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, who presented with chest pain, elevated cardiac enzymes, non-specific electrocardiographic findings, echocardiogram with evidence of dilated heart disease with reduced ejection fraction, and subsequent verification using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The results of the cardiac MRI were typical of viral myocarditis. The patient did not respond to a short course of systemic steroids and the standard management for heart failure, had multiple re-admissions, and, unfortunately, died.

The coronary artery calcium (CAC) score is a marker of advanced coronary atherosclerosis. Numerous prospective cohorts have validated CAC as an independent marker that improves prognostication in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) beyond traditional risk factors. Accordingly, CAC is now incorporated into international cardiovascular guidelines as a tool to inform medical decision-making. Particular interest concerns the significance of zero CAC score (CAC=0). While many studies report CAC=0 to virtually exclude obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD), non-negligible rates of obstructive CAD despite CAC=0 are reported in certain populations. Overall, the current literature supports the power of zero CAC as a strong downward risk classifier in older patients, whose CAD burden predominantly involves calcified plaque. However, with their higher burden of non-calcified plaque, CAC=0 does not reliably exclude obstructive CAD in patients under 40 years. Illustrating this point, we present a cautionary case of a 31-year-old patient found to have severe two-vessel CAD despite CAC=0. We highlight the value of coronary computed tomography angiography (CCTA) as the gold-standard non-invasive imaging modality when the diagnosis of obstructive CAD is in question.

A retrospective study of 322 patient experiences of post-operative pain, short term and long term, following a cardiac implantable electronic device (CIED) procedure. Pain from pacemaker and ICD (implantable cardioverter-defibrillator) implant surgery remains a problem both in terms of severity and longevity. There is a subset of patients receiving implants that have severe pain that may be of a long duration. Patient advice needs to be appropriate to these findings.

This study illustrates a need for better pain management by physicians, support, and realistic communication with their patients.

Cutibacterium acnes (C. acnes), previously known as Propionibacterium acnes, is a rare cause of infective endocarditis (IE). We provide a review of the literature and describe two recent cases from a single centre to provide insight into the various clinical presentations, progression and management of patients with this infection.

The primary objective of our review is to highlight the difficulty in the initial assessment of these patients with an aim to improve the time and accuracy of diagnosis and expedite subsequent treatment. There are currently no guidelines in the literature specific to the management of IE caused by C. acnes. Our secondary objectives are to disseminate information about the indolent course of the disease and add to the growing body of evidence around this rare, yet complex, cause of IE.

High-output heart failure (HF) is an uncommon condition. This occurs when HF syndrome patients have a cardiac output higher than eight litres per minute. Shunts, such as fistulas and arteriovenous malformations are an important reversible cause. We present the case of a 30-year-old man who presented to the emergency department due to decompensated HF. Echocardiogram showed dilated myocardiopathy with high cardiac output (19.5 L/min calculated on long-axis view). He was diagnosed with arteriovenous malformation by computed tomography (CT) and subsequent angiography, and a multi-disciplinary team decided to perform endovascular embolisation with ethylene vinyl alcohol/dimethyl sulfoxide at different times. The transthoracic echocardiogram showed a significant decrease in cardiac output (9.8 L/min) and his general condition improved significantly.

Implantable mechanical circulatory support systems have evolved dramatically over the last 50 years. The objective has been to replace or support the failing left ventricle with a device that pumps six litres of blood each minute, a massive 8,640 litres per day. Noisy cumbersome pulsatile devices have been replaced by smaller silent rotary blood pumps that are much more patient friendly. Nonetheless, the tethering to external components, together with the risks of power line infection, pump thrombosis and stroke, must be addressed before widespread acceptance. Infection predisposes to thromboembolism, so elimination of the percutaneous electric cable has the capacity to transform outcomes, reduce costs and improve quality of life.

Developed in the UK, the Calon miniVAD is powered by an innovative coplanar energy transfer system. As such, we consider it can achieve those ambitious objectives.

Atrial fibrillation (AF) is a major cause of recurrent stroke and transient ischaemic attack (TIA) in the UK. As many patients can have asymptomatic paroxysmal AF, prolonged arrhythmia monitoring is advised in selected patients following a stroke or TIA. This service evaluation assessed the clinical and potential health economic impact of prolonged arrhythmia monitoring post-stroke using R-TEST monitoring devices.

This was a prospective, case-controlled, service evaluation in a single health board in the North of Scotland. Patients were included if they had a recent stroke or TIA, were in sinus rhythm, and did not have another indication for, or contraindication to, oral anticoagulation. A health economic model was developed to estimate the clinical and economic value delivered by the R-TEST monitoring. Approval to use anonymised patient data in this service evaluation was obtained.

During the evaluation period, 100 consecutive patients were included. The average age was 70 ± 11 years, 46% were female. Stroke was the presenting complaint in 83% of patients with the other 17% having had a TIA. AF was detected in seven of 83 (8.4%) patients who had had a stroke and one of 17 (5.9%) patients with a TIA. Health economic modelling predicted that adoption of R-TEST monitoring has a high probability of demonstrating both clinical and economic benefits.

In conclusion, developing a post-stroke arrhythmia monitoring service using R-TEST devices is feasible, effective at detecting AF, and represents a probable clinical and economic benefit

Total ischaemic time in ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) has been shown to be a predictor of mortality. The aim of this study was to assess the total ischaemic time of STEMIs in an Irish primary percutaneous coronary intervention (pPCI) centre. A single-centre prospective observational study was conducted of all STEMIs referred for pPCI from October 2017 until January 2019.

There were 213 patients with a mean age 63.9 years (range 29–96 years). The mean ischaemic time was 387 ± 451.7 mins. The mean time before call for help (patient delay) was 207.02 ± 396.8 mins, comprising the majority of total ischaemic time. Following diagnostic electrocardiogram (ECG), 46.5% of patients had ECG-to-wire cross under 90 mins as per guidelines; 73.9% were within 120 mins and 93.4% were within 180 mins. Increasing age correlated with longer patient delay (Pearson’s r=0.2181, p=0.0066). Women exhibited longer ischaemic time compared with men (508.96 vs. 363.33 mins, respectively, p=0.03515), driven by a longer time from first medical contact (FMC) to ECG (104 vs. 34 mins, p=0.0021).

The majority of total ischaemic time is due to patient delay, and this increases as age increases. Women had longer ischaemic time compared with men and longer wait from FMC until diagnostic ECG. This study suggests that improved awareness for patients and healthcare staff will be paramount in reducing ischaemic time.

The assessment of the prognostic value of the admission electrocardiography (ECG) (specifically of the duration of the PR and QTc intervals, the QRS complex and the heart rate [HR]) in COVID-19 patients on the basis of nine observational studies (n=1,424) indicates that relatively long duration of the QTc interval and QRS complex, as well as higher HR, are linked to a severe course of COVID-19, which may be of use in risk stratification. Since there are important differences in suggested indicators of adverse prognosis between observational studies, further research is necessary to clarify high-risk criteria.

Cardiac transthyretin amyloidosis (ATTR) is an often underdiagnosed disease that can lead to significant morbidity and mortality for patients. In recent years, technetium-99m pyrophosphate scintigraphy (PYP) imaging has become a standard of care diagnostic tool to help clinicians identify this disease. With newly emerging therapies for ATTR cardiomyopathy, it is critical to identify patients who are eligible for therapy as early as possible. At our institution, we sought to describe the frequency of PYP scanning and how it has impacted the management of a patient suspected to have amyloid cardiomyopathy.

Between 1 January 2017 and 31 December 2020, we identified 273 patients who completed PYP scanning for evaluation of cardiac amyloidosis at Tufts Medical Center, a tertiary care centre. We reviewed pertinent clinical data for all study subjects. A PYP scan was considered positive when the heart to contralateral lung ratio was greater than or equal to 1.5, with a visual grade of 2 or 3, and confirmation with single-photon emission computerised tomography (SPECT) imaging.

In total there were 55 positive, 202 negative, and 16 equivocal PYP scans. Endomyocardial biopsies were rarely performed following PYP results. Of the seven patients with a positive PYP scan who underwent biopsy, five were positive for ATTR amyloid; of the patients with a negative scan who were biopsied, none were positive for ATTR amyloidosis and two were positive for amyloid light-chain (AL) amyloidosis. The biomarkers troponin I, B-type naturietic peptide (BNP), and N-terminal pro-BNP (NT-proBNP), as well as the interventricular septal end-diastolic thickness (IVSd) seen on echocardiogram, were all found to be statistically higher in the PYP positive cohort than in the PYP negative cohort using Mann-Whitney U statistical analysis. In total, 27 out of the 55 patients with a positive PYP scan underwent therapy specific for cardiac amyloid.

In conclusion, this study reinforces the clinical significance of the PYP scan in the diagnosis and management of cardiac amyloidosis. A positive scan allowed physicians to implement early amyloid-directed treatment while a negative scan encouraged physicians to pursue an alternative diagnosis.

We report a case of a patient that presented with typical angina pain and associated risk factors for coronary artery disease (CAD). Subsequent cardiac catheterisation led to the discovery of an isolated R-IIP modified Lipton classification coronary artery anomaly with follow-up coronary computed tomography angiography (CCTA) confirmation. This case report includes images of the CCTA and left heart catheterisation results, along with a discussion of the potential for increased risk of atherosclerosis in our patient, and a proposed explanation of his presentation with prototypical angina pain, despite lack of apparent atherosclerosis.

Though coronary artery disease primarily occurs in those over the age of 40 years, younger individuals who use recreational drugs may be afflicted with coronary events. Cannabis is one such perilous agent that can cause myocardial infarction (MI) and is one of the most common psychoactive drugs used worldwide. Cannabis (also known as marijuana, weed, pot, dope or grass) is the most widely used illegal drug in the UK. The desired euphoric effects are immediate, as are life-threatening hazardous ones.

In this article, we briefly describe a case series of two unique but similar cases of cannabis-induced ST-elevation MI witnessed at our hospital in quick succession. We will analyse the composite pathophysiology in acute coronary syndromes provoked by cannabis and discuss the evolving legality around the use of the drug.

Ambulatory electrocardiogram (AECG) monitoring is a common cardiovascular investigation. Traditionally, this requires a face-to-face appointment. In order to reduce contact during the COVID-19 pandemic, we investigated whether drive-by collection and self-fitting of the device by the patient represents an acceptable alternative.

A prospective, observational study of consecutive patients requiring AECG monitoring over a period of one month at three hospitals was performed. Half underwent standard (face-to-face) fitting, and half attended a drive-by service to collect their monitor, fitting their device at home. Outcome measures were quality of the recordings (determined as good, acceptable or poor), and patient satisfaction.

A total of 375 patients were included (192 face-to-face, 183 drive-by). Mean patient age was similar between the two groups. The quality of the AECG recordings was similar in both groups (52.6% good in face-to-face vs. 53.0% in drive-by; 34.9% acceptable in face-to-face vs. 32.2% in drive-by; 12.5% poor in face-to-face vs. 14.8% in drive-by; Chi-square statistic 0.55, p=0.76). Patient satisfaction rates were high, with all patients in both groups satisfied with the care they received.

In conclusion, drive-by collection and self-fitting of AECG monitoring yields similar AECG quality to conventional face-to-face fitting, with high levels of patient satisfaction.

Imagine that it is possible to know, the actual coronary blood flow. Would this not remove any doubt, if a chest pain is the heart’s fault?

Aortic dissection is a rare and potentially fatal complication of coronary angiography. We report a case of a woman in her late 80s who underwent a left femoral approach coronary angiogram for evaluation of a transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR). Following the procedure, she had a cardiac arrest and was found to have a descending aortic dissection on transoesophageal echocardiogram. Autopsy showed an acute intimal tear of the descending aorta, most likely related to catheter manipulation. Patients undergoing evaluation for TAVR, who tend to be elderly with concomitant atherosclerosis, are at risk for complications following cardiac catheterisation including aortic dissection.

Prevalence of atrial fibrillation (AF) and diabetes is increasing worldwide. Diabetes is a risk factor for AF and both increase stroke risk. Previous AF screening studies have recruited high-risk patient groups, but not with diabetes as the target group. This study aims to determine whether people with diabetes have a higher prevalence of AF than the general population and investigate whether determinants, such as diabetes duration or diabetes control, add to AF risk.

In a cross-sectional screening study, patients with diabetes were recruited via their GP surgeries or a diabetes centre. A 30-second single-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) was recorded using the Kardia^® device, along with physiological measurements and details relating to risk factor variables.

There were 300 participants recruited and 16 patients identified with AF (5.3% prevalence). This demonstrated a significantly greater likelihood of AF than the background population (p=0.043). People with diabetes and AF were significantly older than those who only had diabetes. More people with type 2 diabetes had AF than people with type 1. Prediction of AF diagnosis by age, sex, diabetes type, diabetes duration and level of control revealed only age as a significant predictor.

In conclusion, these findings add to existing data around the association of these chronic conditions, supporting AF screening in this high-risk group, particularly in those of older age. This can contribute to appropriate management of both conditions in combination, not least with regards to stroke prevention.

Various cardiac disorders seen in general and acute medicine have dermatological manifestations that may provide critical clues to the underlying disease. This review will discuss the important dermatological signs seen in cardiac conditions. We believe greater interdisciplinary liaison will improve our understanding of the link between the dermatological and cardiovascular systems and the underlying disease processes.

There is emerging evidence that a proportion of patients who develop long (post)-COVID-19 have abnormalities in the regulation of their autonomic nervous system manifesting as postural tachycardia syndrome (PoTS). We report a series of 14 patients who developed symptoms and signs compatible with PoTS following clinically diagnosed COVID-19 infection. Their symptoms and clinical findings were consistent with those of patients with non-COVID-related PoTS. The authors recommend an active stand test for patients who present after COVID-19 infection with cardiovascular symptoms including chest pain, palpitations, light-headedness and breathlessness that are worse with the upright posture. They further recommend training of clinicians and investment in health services to provide for the anticipated significant increase in patients presenting with PoTS and other forms of autonomic dysfunction due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Presentation and outcomes of patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) may change during viral pandemics. We compared symptom-to-call (STC), call-to-balloon (CTB), door-to-balloon (DTB) times; high-sensitivity troponin (hs-cTnI) levels; and survival of patients (n=39) during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic (defined as a ‘COVID period’ starting four weeks before lockdown) to historical controls from a ‘pre-COVID period’ (n=45).

STEMI admissions fell one week before lockdown by 29%. Median STC times began to rise one month before lockdown (54 vs. 25 min, p=0.06), with peak increases between 9 March and 5 April (166 vs. 59 min, p=0.04). Median CTB and DTB times were unchanged. Mean peak hs-cTnI increased during COVID-19 (15,225 vs. 8,852 ng/ml, p=0.004). Six-month survival following all STEMI reduced (82.1% vs. 95.6%, p<0.05).

STC times are the earliest indicator that STEMI-patient behaviour changed four weeks before lockdown, correlating with higher troponin levels and reduced survival. These early signals could guide public health interventions during future pandemics.

Heart failure (HF) is increasingly common and incurs a substantial cost, both in terms of quality and length of life, but also in terms of societal and economic impact. While significant gains are being made in the therapeutic management of HF, we continue to diagnose most patients when they are acutely unwell in hospital, often with advanced disease.

This article presents our experience in working collaboratively with primary care colleagues to redesign our HF pathway with the aim of facilitating earlier, community, diagnosis of HF. In so doing, and, thus, starting prognostic therapy much earlier in the course of the disease, we seek to avoid both the cost of emergency hospitalisation and the cost of poorer outcomes.

Bleeding is the commonest and most concerning adverse event associated with anticoagulants. Bleeding, depending on the severity, is managed in various ways, and for severe or life-threatening bleeding, specific antidotes are indicated and recommended. This review provides guidance relating to specific direct oral anticoagulant (DOAC) reversal agents, the antidotes. We discuss their indications for use, dosing, and potential side effects.

In randomised, placebo- or active-controlled trials in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), each of the combination of a neprilysin inhibitor and an angiotensin-receptor blocker (i.e. sacubitril/valsartan), a beta blocker, a mineralocorticoid-receptor antagonist and a sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor have been shown to reduce morbidity and mortality, firmly establishing the role of these five agents, prescribed as four pills, as foundational therapy for HFrEF. Traditionally, the guideline-advocated strategy for the initiation of these therapies was based on the historical order in which the landmark clinical trials were performed, and the requirement to up-titrate each individual drug to the target dose (or maximally tolerated dose below this) prior to initiation of another therapy. This process could take six months or more to complete, during which time patients would not be taking one or more of these life-saving drugs. Recently an alternative, evidence-based, rapid three-step sequencing strategy has been proposed with the aim of establishing HFrEF patients on low-doses of all four foundational treatments within four weeks. This strategy is based on the premise that the benefits of each of these therapies are independent and additive to the others, the benefits are apparent at low doses early following initiation, and a specific ordering of therapies may increase likelihood of tolerance of others. This article will outline this novel rapid-sequencing strategy and provide an evidence-based framework to support its adoption into clinical practice.

Mitral regurgitation is a common valvular heart disorder increasing with age. Many patients are ineligible for mitral valve surgery due to their age and other comorbidities. Left untreated, patients develop severe disease with a poor prognosis. The development of lower risk percutaneous mitral valve interventions has helped meet the needs of this previously untreated patient group. This review explores the recent and more established developments that have expanded the armamentarium for transcatheter mitral valve intervention.

Implantable cardiac defibrillators (ICDs) can prevent sudden cardiac death, but the risk of recurrent ventricular arrhythmia (VA) and ICD shocks persist. Strategies to minimise such risks include medication optimisation, device programming and ventricular tachycardia (VT) ablation. Whether the choice of these interventions at follow-up are influenced by factors such as the type of arrhythmia or ICD therapy remains unclear. To investigate this, we evaluated ICD follow-up strategies in a real-world population with primary and secondary prevention ICDs.

REFINE-VT (Real-world Evaluation of Follow-up strategies after Implantable cardiac-defibrillator therapies in patients with Ventricular Tachycardia) is an observational study of 514 ICD recipients recruited between 2018 and 2019. We found that 77 patients (15%) suffered significant VA and/or ICD therapies, of whom 26% experienced a second event; 31% received no intervention. We observed an inconsistent approach to the choice of strategies across different types of arrhythmias and ICD therapies. Odds of intervening were significantly higher if ICD shock was detected compared with anti-tachycardia pacing (odds ratio [OR] 8.4, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.7 to 39.6, p=0.007). Even in patients with two events, the rate of escalation of anti-arrhythmics or referral for VT ablation were as low as patients with single events.

This is the first contemporary study evaluating how strategies that reduce the risk of recurrent ICD events are executed in a real-world population. Significant inconsistencies in the choice of interventions exist, supporting the need for a multi-disciplinary approach to provide evidence-based care to this population.

We performed a single-centre study to assess the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in psychiatry outpatients with intellectual disability (ID) using the QRISK-3 score.

There were 143 patients known to the ID psychiatry clinic enrolled. Of these, 28 (19.6%) had elevated CVD risk – defined as 10-year risk of heart attack or stroke of ≥10%. Of these, 57.1% were not prescribed statin therapy, which – after lifestyle measures – is recommended by National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines. The mean QRISK-3 score was 6.31% (95% confidence interval [CI] 4.84 to 7.78), with a relative risk of 3.50 (95%CI 2.34 to 4.67) compared with matched controls.

The high CVD risk identified in this study supports routine CVD risk assessment and management in adult outpatients with ID. Appropriate lifestyle measures and statin therapy could help reduce the excess CVD-related morbidity and mortality in ID patients.

Transthoracic echocardiography presents a risk of COVID-19 transmission between an echocardiographer and the patient. Reducing the scanning time is likely to mitigate this risk for them both. British Society of Echocardiography (BSE) level 1 echocardiography offers a potential framework for focused scanning in an outpatient setting. There were 116 outpatients scheduled for a level 1 scan supplemented with additional pre-defined views, if required. Unexpectedly, a fifth of the scans were performed as an unintended full scan for a variety of reasons. Our results showed that focused scans were performed more quickly than full scans and below the NHS Test and Trace exposure cut-off of 15 minutes. However, if more than three sets of additional measurements were required then a full scan could be performed more quickly. Seniority of the echocardiographer and scan time had an inverse relationship. By examining the patients’ clinical records we were confident that all of the scans, whether focused or full, had answered the requestor’s clinical question. Although the COVID-19 vaccination programme should reduce the necessity of minimising exposure time during a scan there could still be a role for level 1 scanning during the COVID-19 recovery programme to tackle the vast lists of patients waiting for an echocardiogram.

Quality of life (QoL) is an essential consideration when managing the wellbeing of patients and assists in interpretation of symptoms, functional status and perceptions. Atrial fibrillation (AF) and diabetes demand significant healthcare resources. Existing data demonstrate a negative impact on QoL as individual conditions, but there is less evidence relating to the impact of these disease groups in combination. This study therefore explores QoL in patients with AF and diabetes.

This cross-sectional, observational study required participants to complete the short form (SF)-36 survey via an online platform and was offered to people affected by AF alone and people with AF and diabetes in combination. The SF-36 provides a prevalidated tool with eight domains relating to physical and psychological health.

A total of 306 surveys were completed (231 AF group, 75 AF and diabetes group). The mean and standard deviation (SD) were calculated for each QoL domain, after re-coding in accordance with SF-36 guidance. Multi-variate analysis of variance (MANOVA) demonstrated an overall significant difference between the groups when considered jointly across all domains. There were significant differences between AF and AF with diabetes QoL responses in physical functioning, energy fatigue, emotional wellbeing, social functioning and pain. In these domains, the mean was highest in the AF group. There were no significant differences in the role physical, role emotional and general health domains.

In conclusion, this study demonstrates that diabetes and AF has a more detrimental effect on QoL than AF alone, in the majority of domains. Further research into the general AF population and where chronic conditions co-exist is important to comprehend the true impact this disease combination has on QoL.

In order to evaluate the extent and causes of pain during cardiac implantable electronic device (CIED) implantation in our hospital, a prospective audit over a 23-month period using a patient self-reporting questionnaire was undertaken.

In total, 599 procedures were reported, 52.9% for de novo pacemaker implantation and 23.4% for high-energy devices (cardiac resynchronisation therapy defibrillator [CRT-D], implantable cardiac defibrillator [ICD], subcutaneous ICD). Overall, the median pain score was 2/10 (interquartile range 2–4). In total, 61.6% (367/599) reported no pain or mild pain (pain scores 0–3/10), 27.7% (165/599) reported moderate pain (pain score of 4–6/10) and 10.7% (64/599) reported severe pain (pain score of 7–10/10) during the procedure. Significant pre-implant worry (odds ratio [OR] 2.13, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.22 to 3.73) and higher lidocaine doses (OR 1.06, 95%CI 1.00 to 1.11) were associated with severe patient-reported pain.

In conclusion, most patients underwent CIED implantation with minimum stress and maximum comfort. An important minority reported severe pain during the procedure. Optimising surgical technique and interventions targeted at reducing pre- and peri-implant worry, particularly in women, and especially in those receiving ICDs, warrants further investigation to reduce patient-reported pain during CIED implantation.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has sparked novel research and insights, but also concerns and anxiety regarding established practices. Early into the pandemic, public and scientific concern was raised regarding the role of renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS) inhibitors on the susceptibility to COVID-19 given their effect on angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE-2), the host receptor for the virus. This gathered media attention globally, despite several health boards encouraging the ongoing use of these medications. We aimed to investigate whether, despite advice supporting continued use of these medications, there was a change in prescribing practices for RAAS inhibitors in general practice. Data were collated from the NHS digital platform, which provides monthly practice-level prescribing information for all primary care practices in England. We performed an interrupted time-series analysis on national-level prescribing data comparing time-series coefficients pre- and post-March 2020 with metformin used as a control. We find that from March to December 2020, prescribing rates of RAAS inhibitors were reduced relative to the previous time-series trend. This finding persisted after adjustment for rates of metformin prescription. This suggests that there was a change in prescribing behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic, which may be linked to the public and scientific concerns during this time.

Loperamide is an over-the-counter, peripherally-acting, µ-opioid receptor agonist commonly used in the treatment of diarrhoea. It has increasingly been recognised as a potential drug of misuse, having previously been thought to have low potential for abuse owing to its low bioavailability and poor penetration of the central nervous system. High doses can result in life-threatening cardiac-toxicity.

We present a case of a young woman who had been self-treating her depression with high doses of loperamide for one year, who then presented to hospital with syncope secondary to ventricular tachycardia (VT). While in the emergency department (ED) the patient had monomorphic pulseless VT requiring electrical cardioversion multiple times. Transfer to a tertiary cardiac centre was immediately arranged after she was stabilised and intubated. This complicated the diagnostic process as a thorough history could not be obtained on arrival to the tertiary centre, which meant the loperamide misuse only came to light multiple days into admission, after the patient was extubated. The final diagnosis of loperamide-induced secondary long-QT syndrome was made and the patient made a full recovery.

Transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) is a routine procedure for patients with symptomatic severe aortic stenosis who are deemed inoperable or high-risk surgical candidates. The aim of this study was to examine real-world data on death and readmission rates in patients following the procedure.

Electronic health records for patients who underwent TAVI between April 2015 and November 2018 were reviewed. Details of the procedure, complications, length of initial hospital stay and outcomes of interest (subsequent admissions and mortality) were recorded.

In our cohort of 124 patients, the mean age was 80.8 years and 43% were male. Cardiac comorbidities were common, more than 30% had myocardial infarction (MI) and 15% had a previous coronary artery bypass graft (CABG). One in five suffered from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), with similar prevalence of diabetes mellitus and cerebrovascular accident (CVA). In-hospital mortality was low at 3.3%, however, 30-day readmission rates were high at 14.6%; 44.4% were readmitted to hospital within one year.

TAVI is a successful procedure in Scotland with good outcome data. The potential benefit of the procedure in many patients is limited by comorbidities, which shorten life-expectancy and lead to hospital readmission. These data highlight the importance of effective multi-disciplinary discussion in a time of realistic medicine.

In a cardiology department, there are some patients that require long-term antibiotics, such as those with infective endocarditis or infected prosthetic devices. We describe our experience with intravenous antibiotic therapy for patients with cardiology diagnoses who require a period of antibiotics in our outpatient service during the period of the COVID-19 pandemic. A total of 15 patients were selected to have outpatient antibiotic therapy (age range 36 to 97 years, 60% male). A total of nine patients had infective endocarditis, four patients had infected valve prosthesis or transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) endocarditis, one patient had infected pericardial effusion while another had infected pericarditis. For these 15 patients there was a total of 333 hospital bed-days, on average 22 days per patient. These patients also had a total of 312 days of outpatient antibiotic therapy, which was an average of 21 days per patient. The total cost, if patients were admitted for those days, assuming a night cost £400, was £124,800, which was on average £8,320 per patient. Three patients were readmitted within 30 days. One had ongoing endocarditis that was managed medically and another had pulmonary embolism. The last patient had a side effect related to daptomycin use. In conclusion, outpatient antibiotic therapy in selected patients with native or prosthetic infective endocarditis appears to be safe for a selected group of patients with associated cost savings.

Radial artery access has transformed cardiac catheterisation, allowing it to be performed in a daycase setting, saving both hospital beds, and nursing care costs. However, there are two common and seemingly diametrically opposite complications. These are radial artery occlusion and forearm haematoma; the former could be reduced by heparin, but at the expense of precipitating the latter. These complications increase proportionally to the size of radial artery sheath used. Interestingly, by cannulating the radial artery more distally beyond its bifurcation in the hand, the distal radial approach appears to be the ‘one stone, two birds’ or the synchronous Chinese idiom, ‘yīshí’èrniǎo’s’ solution, reducing both complications at the same time. Extending this further and downsizing to a 4Fr catheter system, heparin use could be spared altogether, without complications, and haemostasis achieved with short manual pressure at the puncture site. Hence, further cost savings by foregoing commercial compression bands, and abolishing access site care for nurses. We illustrate the above strategy in a patient with challenging radial anatomy, made simple and easy.

Two cases of orthostatic hypotension associated with weight loss following cancer treatment are described. Conventional treatments for orthostatic hypotension proved ineffective. A hypothesis of association with skeletal muscle wasting is discussed.

Stent edge dissection is one of the procedural complications concerning percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). We present a clinical case of multi-vessel PCI where the patient had to return with recurring symptoms within two weeks of a seemingly successful PCI, only to teach us a valuable lesson in the more frequent and judicious use of intracoronary imaging.

The UK cardiology specialist training programme utilises the National Health Service (NHS) e-Portfolio to ensure adequate progression is being made during a trainees’ career. The NHS e-portfolio has been used for 15 years, but many questions remain regarding its perceived learning value and usefulness for trainees and trainers. This qualitative study in the recent pre-COVID era explored the perceived benefits of the NHS e-Portfolio with cardiology trainees and trainers in two UK training deaneries. Questionnaires were sent to 66 trainees and to 50 trainers. 50% of trainees felt that their development had benefited from use of the ePortfolio. 61% of trainees found it an effective educational tool, and 25% of trainees and 39% of trainers found the ePortfolio useful for highlighting their strengths and weaknesses. 75% of trainees viewed workplace based assessments as a means to passing the ARCP. The results show that the NHS ePortfolio and workplace based assessments were perceived negatively by some trainees and trainers alike, with many feeling that significant improvements need to be made. In light of the progress and acceptance of digital technology and communication in the current COVID-19 era, it is likely to be the time for the development of a new optimal digital training platform for cardiology trainees and trainers. The specialist societies could help develop a more speciality specific learning and development tool.

Selexipag is an oral selective prostacyclin-receptor agonist that was approved for use in patients with World Health Organisation (WHO) functional class II–III pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). Treatment with individualised doses of selexipag resulted in significant reductions in the composite end point of death or a complication related to PAH in the phase III GRIPHON (Prostacyclin [PGI2] Receptor Agonist In Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension) study. In order to better understand the real-world approach to selexipag titration and to establish the individualised maintenance regimens used in our centre, we performed this retrospective study of the first 20 patients prescribed selexipag. Baseline characteristics differed from the GRIPHON study, with more combination therapy and comorbidities at drug initiation. Maintenance doses were stratified as low-dose in 10% (n=2), medium-dose in 70% (n=14) and high-dose in 20% (n=4). This study highlights that selexipag can be safely initiated, titrated and transitioned in an outpatient setting to achieve an individualised dosing regimen.

A 52-year-old woman, referred for transoesophageal echocardiography, developed acute Takotsubo cardiomyopathy during the examination as a result of emotional distress beforehand. Asymptomatic left ventricular apical ballooning with severe systolic dysfunction within minutes of the emotional trigger was the first sign of any abnormality.

This is an interesting case of wide complex tachycardia in a patient on flecainide for paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. Diagnostic possibilities were discussed, actual diagnosis revealed, and explanation provided.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) commonly involves the respiratory system but increasingly cardiovascular involvement is recognised. We assessed electrocardiogram (ECG) abnormalities in patients with COVID-19.

We performed retrospective analysis of the hospital’s COVID-19 database from April to May 2020. Any ECG abnormality was defined as: 1) new sinus bradycardia; 2) new/worsening bundle-branch block; 3) new/worsening heart block; 4) new ventricular or atrial bigeminy/trigeminy; 5) new-onset atrial fibrillation (AF)/atrial flutter or ventricular tachycardia (VT); and 6) new-onset ischaemic changes. Patients with and without any ECG change were compared.

There were 455 patients included of whom 59 patients (12.8%) met criteria for any ECG abnormality. Patients were older (any ECG abnormality 77.8 ± 12 years vs. no ECG abnormality 67.4 ± 18.2 years, p<0.001) and more likely to die in-hospital (any ECG abnormality 44.1% vs. no ECG abnormality 27.8%, p=0.011). Cox-proportional hazard analysis demonstrated any ECG abnormality (hazard ratio [HR] 1.97, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.12 to 3.47, p=0.019), age (HR 1.03, 95%CI 1.01 to 1.05, p=0.0009), raised high sensitivity troponin I (HR 2.22, 95%CI 1.27 to 3.90, p=0.006) and low estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) (HR 1.73, 95%CI 1.04 to 2.88, p=0.036) were independent predictors of in-hospital mortality.

In conclusion, any new ECG abnormality is a significant predictor of in-hospital mortality.

This review focuses on the role of CytoSorb® (CytoSorbents Corporation, Monmouth Junction, New Jersey, USA), a technology for purifying extracorporeal blood. The technology is designed for several indications to prevent bleeding complications during on-pump cardiac surgery, including removal of the antiplatelet agent, ticagrelor, and the oral anticoagulant, rivaroxaban, from the blood. Recent clinical studies are briefly reviewed.

Cardiac implantable electronic device (CIED)-related complications and infections typically lead to prolonged hospital stays and, very occasionally, death. A new CIED insertion protocol was implemented in a district general hospital. The primary objective of this study was to determine whether a significant reduction in complication and infection rates occurred after implementation of the new protocol. Medical records were reviewed for patients who had a CIED inserted in the two years pre- and post-protocol implementation, and any complications were identified in a one-year follow-up period.

An increase in the complexity of the devices implanted after introduction of the protocol was observed. The number of complications was significantly reduced from 6.86% to 3.95% (p<0.0001). In the two years prior to protocol implementation, 14 of 871 (1.6%) patients suffered a CIED-related infection. In contrast, four of 683 (0.44%) patients suffered a CIED-related infection in the two years post-implementation. This was not statistically significant (p=0.093).

In conclusion, implementing a standardised protocol for CIED insertion significantly reduced the rate of complications, and also reduced the rate of infection, but this was not statistically significant.

The Fontan procedure provides a palliative surgical repair for complex congenital heart disease, but it is associated with many long-term problems, including liver cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. The current suggestion from international guidance is that end-organ surveillance should be carried out, with a particular focus on regular blood tests and imaging for liver function.

In this study, retrospective analysis was performed on adult patients who had previously had a Fontan operation performed to determine the regularity of end-organ surveillance in regards to their liver function covering the three calendar years from 2016 to 2018, and the first six months of 2019.

Eighty-six patients were identified in South Wales monitored by the adult congenital heart disease unit. We found that the number of investigations performed in the first six months of 2019 was comparable to other calendar years in their entirety. Liver function tests had been performed in 57% of patients throughout 2018, with only 8% having had an alpha-fetoprotein taken, and only 9% having had imaging of the liver performed. Over the course of their lifetime, 97% of patients had had a liver function blood test performed at some point, with 17% having had an alpha-fetoprotein taken, and 49% having their liver imaged.

In conclusion, end-organ surveillance is an important follow-up for patients with a Fontan circulation, with guidelines proposing yearly blood test and imaging investigations. This study shows the opportunities to improve surveillance in this group of patients to highlight the development of liver cirrhosis, and/or hepatocellular carcinoma.

Exercise prevents and aids treatment of coronary heart disease, hypertension, heart failure, diabetes mellitus, obesity and depression, reduces cardiac events and improves survival. However, evidence suggests that the relationship between exercise and mortality may be curvilinear, with modest additional benefit at higher levels. Intensive exercise has also been associated with increased atrial fibrillation risk, although its clinical implications are not well understood. Other proposed adverse effects of exercise on the heart, including reduced right ventricular function, elevated cardiac biomarkers, myocardial fibrosis and coronary artery calcification, are less substantiated. Current evidence cannot affirm that extreme exercise is dangerous and future studies should combine large cohorts to obtain a statistically reliable limit. Associations between features of the athlete’s heart and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality should also be explored.

Control of hypercholesterolaemia is an effective way of reducing cardiovascular events in patients at elevated risk of cardiovascular disease. Repeat cholesterol measurement is a good practice, but is rarely performed, with clinicians often adopting a ‘fire and forget’ policy.

A retrospective audit at two cardiac centres in the West Midlands was performed to evaluate performance in lipid measurement following initiation of lipid therapy, and to evaluate whether all patients with an indication for a proprotein convertase subtisilin/kexin 9 inhibitor (PCSK9i) following acute coronary syndrome (ACS) were identified according to National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) recommendations.

We identified 167/7,048 patients with a total cholesterol of ≥7.2 mmol/L, of which 33 patients had previous vascular disease affecting more than one territory (polyvascular disease). Total cholesterol threshold ≥7.2 mmol/L was chosen in order to achieve a sufficient number of samples for the audit to be completed successfully. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) level was performed in 93 patients on admission and repeated within three months in 20 patients (13%). Overall, 48 patients (30%) had any repeat LDL recorded. Of this group, 10 patients met the NICE criteria for PCSK9i.

Failure to repeat LDL levels in patients following hospital discharge with a diagnosis of ACS, is likely to explain the small number of patients identified as being eligible for PCSK9i. Underreporting of comorbid vascular disease also prevents the identification of patients at very high risk. We advocate re-establishing the practice of routine repeat fasting lipids measurement following discharge from hospital in order to correctly identify patients who may be eligible for optimal lipid-lowering therapy.

Patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) who received the sodium-glucose co-transport 2 inhibitor, dapagliflozin, in the DAPA-HF (Dapagliflozin and Prevention of Adverse Outcomes in Heart Failure) study have a significant reduction in worsening heart failure (HF) and cardiovascular death. It is uncertain what proportion of patients admitted to a large regional cardiac centre with decompensated heart failure would be eligible for dapagliflozin post-discharge based on their characteristics at discharge.

The DAPA-HF study criteria were retrospectively applied to a cohort of 521 consecutive patients referred to the inpatient HF service in a tertiary cardiac centre in South West Wales between April 2017 and April 2018. Inclusion criteria: left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) <40%, New York Heart Association (NYHA) class II–IV symptoms and an elevated N-terminal pro-B-type naturietic peptide (NT-proBNP). Exclusion criteria: systolic blood pressure (SBP) <95 mmHg, estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) <30 ml/min/1.73 m² or type 1 diabetes mellitus. We did not have complete NT-proBNP data for the cohort, as it was not routinely measured at the time in our institute.

There were 478 patients, mean age 78 ± 13 years, 57% male and 91% NYHA class II–IV symptoms, were included in the analysis. Of these, 247 patients had HFrEF, 219 (46%) patients met the inclusion criteria, 231 (48%) were excluded as LVEF was >40%, and 48 (10%) were excluded with NYHA class I symptoms. Of the 219 patients who met the inclusion criteria, 13 (5.9%) had a SBP <95 mmHg, 48 (22%) had eGFR <30 ml/min/1.73 m², leaving 136 (28.5% of total and 55% of those with HFrEF) who met DAPA-HF study criteria.

In our study, 28.5% of all heart failure admissions and 55% of patients with HFrEF would be eligible for dapagliflozin post-discharge according to the DAPA–HF study entry criteria.

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TCM) was first described about 30 years ago. It has been attributed to the sudden catecholamine surge in relation to severe stress, which can cause multi-vessel coronary spasms and myocardial apical ballooning. Football supporters are prone to develop severe stress due to sudden changes in match results. This case presents a football supporter of Sheffield United (the Blades) who was admitted to the hospital with cardiac sounding chest pain following a last minute goal by the opposing team. The necessary investigations were carried out including coronary angiogram and echocardiogram. He was diagnosed with TCM following a left ventricular angiogram demonstrating the typical appearance of the octopus pot.

Increased demand for transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) procedures for patients with severe aortic stenosis has not been matched with a proportional increase in available resources in recent years. This article highlights the importance of developing integrated care pathways for TAVI, which incorporate standardised protocols for permanent pacemaker implantation (PPI) to ensure best practice, increase service efficiency and reduce rates of PPI post-TAVI.

During the recent ‘first wave’ of the COVID-19 pandemic, the National Health Service (NHS) has triaged planned services to create surge capacity. The primary prevention implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) was in a grey area of triage guidance, but it was suggested as a procedure that could be reasonably stopped. Recent reports have highlighted deaths of patients awaiting ICDs who may have been deferred during the pandemic. In our trust we reorganised our device service and continued to implant primary prevention ICDs during the ‘first wave’ and, here, report that most patients wished to proceed and underwent uncomplicated implantations. One patient later died from COVID-19, although the transmission site cannot be definitively concluded. With strict adherence to public health guidance and infection prevention strategies, we believe that ICD implantation can be performed safely during the pandemic, and this should be standard practice during subsequent surges.

Papillary fibroelastomas (PFE) are rare benign cardiac tumours mainly originating on aortic and mitral valvular surfaces. Management is individualised, but most recommend surgical excision due to thromboembolic risk. We report a 75-year-old man with symptomatic severe aortic stenosis compounded by PFE. Redo sternotomy aortic valve replacement was deferred in favour of the trans-apical (TAVR) approach. This report highlights, for the first time, the application of TAVR as a strategy for aortic valve stenosis and PFE to mitigate risk posed by injury to patent internal mammary arterial graft in close proximity to the manubrium, and complications due to the patient’s multiple comorbidities.

A wide range of medications including antimalarial preparations (chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine), macrolide antibiotics (azithromycin) and the interleukin-6 inhibitor (tocilizumab) may be effective in treating patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Such agents may be associated with cardiotoxicity, and the purpose of this brief review is to draw attention to potential areas of pharmacovigilance. These include prolongation of the QT-interval and the development of occult cardiomyopathy. Alternatively, some of the agents seem to have minimal impact on the cardiovascular system. The review highlights the need for an ongoing evaluation of such agents within carefully constructed clinical trials with embedded attention to cardiovascular safety.

The reason to be cautious when evaluating curative or symptomatic treatments is the fact that SARS-CoV-2 has affected large segments of the population, with disproportionate mortality rates within certain subgroups. Some of the enhanced mortality may reflect inherent cardiovascular disease risk factors related to acute COVID-19 infection.

It is hoped that the review will stimulate a greater awareness of potential cardiovascular side effects and encourage reporting of those in future trials.

Around 7.4 million people in the UK have heart and cardiovascular disease, coronary artery disease (CAD) being the most common type. The Driving and Vehicle Licensing Agency (DVLA) has guidance for medical professionals to aid assessment of cardiac patients with respect to driving. The guidance is different for personal, Public Carriage Office (PCO) and goods vehicles. It remains the doctors’ responsibility to advise patients of any driving restrictions, as certain cardiac conditions can limit patients’ ability to drive. This gains importance especially after certain procedures. A retrospective review of discharge summaries from electronic medical records was undertaken for a period of three months to review the number of patients getting appropriate advice. It was noted that frequently no written driving advice was recorded on discharge, neglecting an important element of patient safety. Steps were taken to counteract the lack of proper driving advice and documentation, which were effective on second review. Therefore, measures similar to ones outlined here should be put in place to ensure safe discharge and knowledge of the clinicians in accordance with the DVLA guidance.

This study aims to present the screening, prevalence and treatment of heart failure (HF) patients with iron deficiency in an Irish hospital and use an economic model to estimate the budget impact of treating eligible patients with intravenous ferric carboxymaltose (IV FCM).

Retrospective data were collected on 151 HF patients over a one-year period from all newly referred HF patients to a secondary care hospital. This included 36 patients with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) and 115 with reduced ejection fraction (HPrEF). An existing budget impact model was adapted to incorporate Irish unit cost and resource use data to estimate the annual budget impact of treating patients with IV FCM.

The total number of HFrEF patients who met criteria for iron replacement was 44 (38% of total HFrEF patients); of this, only nine (20%) were treated. The budget impact model estimates that treating all eligible patients with IV FCM in this single centre would save 40 bed-days and over €7,600/year.

To improve the quality of life and reduce hospitalisation, further identification and treatment of iron deficient patients should be implemented. Expanding the use of IV iron nationally would be cost and bed saving.

Takotsubo syndrome – also known as broken-heart syndrome, Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, and stress-induced cardiomyopathy – is a recently discovered acute cardiac disease first described in Japan in 1991. This review aims to update understanding on the epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and treatment of Takotsubo syndrome, highlighting aspects of interest to cardiologists and general practitioners.

We describe two cases of Takotsubo syndrome and discuss the issues relating to diagnosis and patient communication that they raise.

The incremental shuttle walk test (ISWT) is a valid, reliable submaximal exercise test used in the assessment of patients prior to cardiac rehabilitation (CR). Simultaneous electrocardiogram (ECG) measurements would provide important information on the safety of the test, and adequacy of subsequent cardiac risk stratification. Risk stratification is recommended to assess patients’ suitability for cardiac rehabilitation. For example, ST-segment depression >2 mm from baseline during testing would place a person in a high-risk category. However, such ECG measurements are rarely undertaken in clinical practice. The aim of the study was to investigate the incidence of ECG changes during an ISWT, and report on the possible impact of these findings on subsequent cardiac risk stratification.

A retrospective case note review was undertaken for the year 2017. Baseline clinical characteristics from eligible patients were gathered including those with ischaemic heart disease, heart failure, transplant and valve replacement, along with ECG measurements during the ISWT. The impact of ECG findings on cardiac risk stratification was calculated, based on risk stratification developed by the American Association of Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Rehabilitation. The safety of the ISWT was measured by the absence of major ECG changes.

Data were gathered for 295 patients. Minor ECG changes were identified during the ISWT in 189 patients (64.1%), with no major changes. The presence of silent myocardial ischaemia (ST-segment depression) had an impact on cardiac risk stratification in 27 patients. There was a statistically significant positive association between ST-segment depression with cardiac risk stratification (p<0.001).

In conclusion, the ISWT is safe in terms of ECG changes. The impact of ECG findings on cardiac risk stratification is significant and worthy of further consideration.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has produced a dramatic shift in how we practise medicine, with changes in working patterns, clinical commitments and training. Cardiology trainees in the UK have experienced a significant loss in training opportunities due to the loss of specialist outpatient clinics and reduction in procedural work, with those on subspecialty fellowships perhaps losing out the most. Training days, courses and conferences have also been cancelled or postponed. Many trainees have been redeployed during the crisis, and routes of career progression have been greatly affected, prompting concerns about extensions in training time, along with effects on mental health.

With the pandemic ongoing and its effects on training likely long-lasting, we examine areas for improvement and opportunities for change in preparation for the ‘new normal’, including how other specialties have adapted. The increasingly routine use of video conferencing and online education has been a rare positive of the pandemic, and simulation will play a larger role. A more coordinated, national approach will need to be introduced to ensure curriculum components are covered and trainees around the country have equal access to ensure cardiology training in the UK remains world class.

Social distancing/isolation is vital for infection control but can adversely impact on mental health. As the spread of COVID-19 is contained, mental health issues will surface with particular concerns for elderly, isolated populations. We present a case of Takotsubo cardiomyopathy related to lockdown anxiety.

We describe a case of pneumopericardium following emergency pericardiocentesis in a patient with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).

Atrial fibrillation (AF) increases cardio-embolic stroke risk, yet AF diagnosis and subsequent prophylactic anticoagulant prescription rates are suboptimal globally. This project aimed to increase AF diagnosis and subsequent anticoagulation prescription rates in East Midlands Clinical Commissioning Groups (CCGs).

This service improvement evaluation of the East Midlands AF Advance programme investigated the implementation of mobile AF detection devices (Kardia, AliveCor) into primary-care practices within East Midlands CCGs, along with audit tools and clinician upskilling workshops designed to increase AF diagnosis and anticoagulation prescription rates. AF prevalence and prescription data were collected quarterly from July to September (Q3) 2017/18 to April to June/July to September (Q2/3) 2018/19.

AF prevalence increased from 1.9% (22,975 diagnoses) in Q3 2017/18 to 2.4% (24,246 diagnoses) in Q2 2018/19 (p=0.026), while the percentage of high-risk AF patients receiving anticoagulants increased from 80.5% in Q3 2017/18 to 86.9% in Q3 2018/19 (p=0.57), surpassing the Public Health England 2019 target of 85%.

The East Midlands AF Advance programme increased AF diagnosis and anticoagulation rates, which is expected to be of significant clinical benefit. The mobile AF detection devices provide a more practical alternative to traditional 12-lead electrocardiograms (ECGs) and should be incorporated into routine clinical practice for opportunistic AF detection, in combination with medication reviews to increase anticoagulant prescription.

Regular physical activity for secondary prevention in cardiovascular disease has many well-recognised benefits, with declines in physical activity being associated with worsening cardiovascular disease, suboptimal treatment or worsening comorbidities that might be rectified by early intervention. Most cardiovascular implantable electronic devices (CIED) now have the ability to detect, analyse and interpret physical activity data through an inbuilt accelerometer. Currently, these data are not being utilised to their full potential. We present three cases that demonstrate some of the possible uses of CIED-collected physical-activity data. These data have the potential to detect a deteriorating patient, to monitor the effects of an intervention, and/or provide motivational feedback to a patient. However, for the data to be used in this manner in the future, greater transparency from manufacturers and robust validation studies will be needed.

Stroke prophylaxis in atrial fibrillation is an important consideration in patients with cancer. However, there is little consensus on the choice of anticoagulation, due to the numerous difficulties associated with active cancer. Direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) have been shown to be a promising option. Here, we conduct a simple cross-sectional analysis of 29 cancer patients receiving DOACs for stroke prophylaxis in atrial fibrillation at a tertiary-care institution in London. Our study demonstrates an encouraging efficacy and safety profile of DOACs used in this setting. We conclude by suggesting that, while DOACs may be useful, anticoagulation in cancer patients should continue to be individualised.

Data for low-risk ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) patients in the Essex cardiothoracic centre (CTC) during a three-month period were evaluated and the average duration of admission was calculated to be 67.2 hours. The data were sifted by applying Second Primary Angioplasty in Myocardial Infarction (PAMI-II) criteria for low-risk STEMI patients who could be safely discharged after 48 hours. After application of a proforma as a quality improvement intervention tool, data were re-assessed and the average time of admission observed for a similar cohort of patients dropped down to an average of 55.2 hours. Overall, there was a 13% average increase in rate of early discharge for low-risk STEMI patients.

Exercise training is associated with positive health outcomes in people with cardiovascular disease (CVD) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). However, fear of hypoglycaemia is a potential barrier to participants attending a cardiac exercise class. Therefore, we assessed the capillary blood glucose (CBG) responses to the Imperial NHS Trust cardiac exercise class.

Forty patients (median age 66 years, interquartile range [IQR] 57–74 years) with CVD and T2DM treated with insulin and/or sulfonylureas completed a cardiac exercise class. CBG was measured immediately before and after the exercise class. Subgroup analysis assessed CBG levels in patients who had consumed food <2 and ≥2 hours and had taken their insulin and/or sulfonylureas <4 and ≥4 hours before the exercise class.

Overall, post-exercise CBG had significantly decreased (–3.0 mmol/L, p≤0.0001). Subgroup analyses demonstrated significant reductions in CBG in both food consumption groups (<2 hours –2.9 mmol/L, p≤0.0001, and ≥2 hours –3.1 mmol/L, p≤0.0001) and medication groups (<4 hours –3.4 mmol/L, p≤0.0002, and ≥4 hours –2.7 mmol/L, p≤0.0001). However, there were no significant differences in CBG between the food consumption groups and the medication groups, respectively (p=0.7 and p=0.3).

Cardiac exercise classes resulted in significant reductions in CBG levels. However, the timing of food consumption or medication intake did not influence the magnitude of CBG decline after the cardiac exercise class.

The inflammatory component of ischaemic heart disease (IHD) is well recognised. An elderly male, following primary percutaneous coronary intervention (pPCI) for ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), had, otherwise unexplained, severely elevated C-reactive protein (CRP) prior to sudden cardiac death (SCD). Post-mortem showed only old infarct, no re-stenosis, and no evidence of inflammation elsewhere. The levels of CRP in this case are much higher than those documented previously in IHD. Current guidelines advocate for implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) implantation after acute coronary syndrome (ACS) only in the context of left ventricular ejection fraction <35%, therefore, this patient would not qualify. Multiple risk-stratification tools have been developed to widen ICD prescription after ACS, but have not yet been integrated into the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines. This case is a poignant reminder that we must widen ICD prescription, and CRP should be considered as a likely predictor.

Quadricuspid aortic valve (QAV) is a rare congenital anomaly that can present as aortic insufficiency later in life. We report a case of aortic regurgitation associated with a QAV, treated by aortic valve replacement. The patient presented with breathlessness, lethargy and peripheral oedema. Echocardiography and cardiac magnetic resonance revealed abnormal aortic valve morphology and coronary angiography was normal. The presence of a quadricuspid aortic valve was confirmed intra-operatively. This was excised and replaced with a bioprosthetic valve and the patient recovered well postoperatively. Importantly, the literature indicates that specific QAV morphology and associated structural abnormalities can lead to complications. Hence, early detection and diagnosis of QAV allows effective treatment. Aortic valve surgery is the definitive treatment strategy in patients with aortic valve regurgitation secondary to QAV. However, the long-term effects and complications of treatment of this condition remain largely unknown.

In the UK, there is a difference between the medical specialties and cardiology in recruitment of women. Research, thus far, has concentrated on women already in cardiology. Although invaluable in understanding barriers to training, these studies fail to provide insight into why other trainees chose an alternative. Therefore, we designed a survey aimed at medical personnel, evaluating why higher trainees in other specialties overlooked cardiology.

An online survey was distributed via email to non-cardiology higher trainees in Wales. Questions covered previous clinical experiences of cardiology, interactions with cardiologists, and tried to identify deterrent factors.

There were 227 responses received over six weeks: 61.7% (n=137) female respondents, 23.5% (n=52) less than full-time. Of these, 49% completed a cardiology placement previously. Bullying was witnessed and experienced equally among genders, females witnessed and experienced sexism, 24% (n=24) and 13% (n=13), respectively. In contrast, male trainees witnessed and experienced sexism 14% (n=7) and 0%. There were 62% (n=133) who felt cardiologists and registrars were unapproachable. Work-life balance ranked first (40%), as the most important factor influencing career choice. The negative attitudes of cardiologists and registrars was ranked top 3 for not pursuing cardiology.

In conclusion, many barriers exist to cardiology training including poor work-life balance, sexism and lack of less than full-time opportunities. However, this survey highlights that the behaviour of cardiologists and registrars has the potential to impact negatively on trainees. It is, therefore, our responsibility to be aware of this and encourage change.

We provide the details of three cases utilising intravascular lithotripsy, a novel approach to percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI).

The utility of computed tomography (CT) coronary angiography (CTCA) is underpinned by its excellent sensitivity and negative-predictive value for coronary artery disease (CAD), although it lacks specificity. Invasive coronary angiography (ICA) and invasive fractional flow reserve (FFR), are gold-standard investigations for coronary artery disease, however, they are resource intensive and associated with a small risk of serious complications. FFR-CT has been shown to have comparable performance to FFR measurements and has the potential to reduce unnecessary ICAs. The aim of this study is to briefly review FFR-CT, as an investigational modality for stable angina, and to share ‘real-world’ UK data, in consecutive patients, following the initial adoption of FFR-CT in our district general hospital in 2016.

A retrospective analysis was performed of a previously published consecutive series of 157 patients referred for CTCA by our group in a single, non-interventional, district general hospital. Our multi-disciplinary team (MDT) recorded the likely definitive outcome following CTCA, namely intervention or optimised medical management. FFR-CT analysis was performed on 24 consecutive patients where the MDT recommendation was for ICA. The CTCA + MDT findings, FFR-CT and ICA ± FFR were correlated along with the definitive outcome.

In comparing CTCA + MDT, FFR-CT and definitive outcome, in terms of whether a percutaneous coronary intervention was performed, FFR-CT was significantly correlated with definitive outcome (r=0.471, p=0.036) as opposed to CTCA + MDT (r=0.378, p=0.07). In five cases (21%, 5/24), FFR-CT could have altered the management plan by reclassification of coronary stenosis. FFR-CT of 60 coronary artery vessels (83%, 60/72) (mean FFR-CT ratio 0.82 ± 0.10) compared well with FFR performed on 18 coronary vessels (mean 0.80 ± 0.11) (r=0.758, p=0.0013).

In conclusion, FFR-CT potentially adds value to MDT outcome of CTCA, increasing the specificity and predictive accuracy of CTCA. FFR-CT may be best utilised to investigate CTCAs where there is potentially prognostically significant moderate disease or severe disease to maximise cost-effectiveness. These data could be used by other NHS trusts to best incorporate FFR-CT into their diagnostic pathways for the investigation of stable chest pain.

Cardiorenal syndrome is a complex condition associated with significant morbidity in the form of symptoms secondary to fluid overload, leading to hospitalisations, and portends increased mortality. Both the diagnosis and management of the conditions are complicated by the fact that there is dysfunction of the heart as well as the kidney, usually with uncertainty with regards to the timing of the first insult. Management in primary care, or in the emergency setting, tends to be predominantly focused on short-term improvement in function of one organ, leading to deleterious effects on the other. A consensus multi-disciplinary approach involving both cardiologists and nephrologists has been advocated in order to devise a unified management plan. Our report presents findings of monthly cardio-nephrology multi-disciplinary team meetings and illustrates that this can be an efficacious approach both in terms of avoiding unnecessary outpatient clinic visits, as well as consensus decision-making.

Ventriculophasic arrhythmia (VPA) is an intriguing electrocardiogram (ECG) phenomenon, often seen in patients with complete heart block, and could sometimes pose a challenging diagnostic dilemma for physicians. By definition, in VPA, the P–P intervals that contain a QRS complex are shorter than the P–P intervals that do not have a QRS complex. VPA is often a tell-tale ECG finding of complete heart block. We describe a case in which paroxysmal VPA led us to diagnose complete heart block.

Immunoglobulin G4-related disease (IgG4-RD) is a systemic fibro-inflammatory immune-mediated disease, which has been defined in the past few years. IgG4-RD affects various organs and leads to a variety of clinical manifestations. As it is a relatively newly defined entity, new manifestations are now being recognised and reported. We describe a case involving the cardiovascular system.

This article is available as a BJC Learning CPD activity

Coronary lithotripsy is a novel approach to percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). It is based on well-established technology dating back to 1980 when lithotripsy was first used to treat renal calculi. Its application in cardiovascular medicine is a more recent development that involves using a low-pressure lithotripsy balloon to deliver unfocused acoustic pulse waves in a circumferential mechanical energy distribution. This causes fracturing of calcification within the surrounding vasculature, facilitating optimal stent deployment.

This article aims to review recent clinical experience and the published data regarding intravascular lithotripsy (IVL). All relevant articles were identified via PubMed using keywords including “intravascular lithotripsy”, “shockwave” and “coronary”. All studies that contained published datasets regarding IVL with patient numbers >50 were included for review. There were 116 results found. After reviewing all the publications, articles were then tabulated and 17 were found to be relevant, including only four clinical studies.

In this review we found that intracoronary lithotripsy for heavily calcified arteries appears to be a safe, effective, easy-to-use method of dealing with an otherwise technically-challenging and high-risk scenario. It appears to carry low risk, uses low pressures, and exerts its effects on both superficial and deep intravascular calcium. Further prospective data with long-term follow-up will be required to explore both the off-label uses of IVL (such as post-stent dilatation), and the long-term patency of these vessels.

Patients with congenitally determined aortic root aneurysms are at risk of aortic valve regurgitation, aortic dissection, rupture and death. Personalised external aortic root support (PEARS) may provide an alternative to aortic root replacement.

This was a multi-centre, prospective cohort of all consecutive patients who received ExoVasc mesh implants for a dilated aortic root between 2004 and 2017. Baseline and peri-operative characteristics, as well as early postoperative outcomes are described, and time-related survival and re-operation free survival are estimated using the Kaplan-Meier method.

From 2004 through 2017, 117 consecutive patients have received ExoVasc mesh implants for aortic root aneurysm. The inclusion criteria were an aortic root/sinus of Valsalva and ascending aorta with asymptomatic dilatation of between 40 and 50 mm in diameter in patients aged 16 years or more. Patients with more than mild aortic regurgitation were excluded. There was one early death. The length of stay was within seven days in 75% of patients.

In conclusion, the operation achieves the objectives of valve-sparing root replacement. PEARS may be seen as a low-risk conservative operation, which can be applied earlier on in the disease process, and which is complementary to more invasive procedures, such as valve-sparing root replacement or total root replacement.

The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) and NHS England have shown a commitment to embedding shared decision-making (SDM) in clinical practice and developing decision aids based on clinical guidelines. Healthcare policy makers are keen to enhance the engagement of patients in SDM in the belief that it improves the benefits accrued from healthcare interventions. This may be important for interventions such as implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) implantation, where cost-effectiveness is under scrutiny. NHS England invited the ICD implanters in the north of England to participate in a regional commissioning quality incentive (CQUIN) project to improve decision-making around a primary prevention ICD implant. A collaborative project included the development of a specific SDM tool, the first of its kind in the UK, followed by training and education of the clinical teams. The project illustrates that this approach is practical and deliverable and could be applied and used in other regions, and considered in additional clinical areas.

Computed tomography (CT) is a widely available imaging modality and artefactual findings are not uncommon, particularly in the presence of foreign bodies.

We conducted a retrospective analysis of all CT scans carried out in our trust in a 12-month period, identifying all reports containing the word “pacemaker”. There were 88 scans identified, six of which reported findings related to the pacemaker. In five cases right ventricular lead perforation was reported. All patients underwent further investigations, which did not show any evidence of true lead perforation.

In conclusion, it is important that both cardiologists and radiologists are aware of the possibility of artefactual lead perforation on CT.

During the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, the British Cardiovascular Society/British Cardiovascular Intervention Society and the British Heart Rhythm Society recommended to postpone non-urgent elective work and that primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) should remain the treatment of choice for patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). We sought to determine the impact of COVID-19 on the primary PCI service within the United Kingdom (UK).

A survey of 43 UK primary PCI centres was performed and a significant reduction in the number of cath labs open was found (pre-COVID 3.6±1.8 vs. post-COVID 2.1±0.8; p<0.001) with only 64% of cath labs remained open during the COVID-19 pandemic. Primary PCI remained first-line treatment for STEMI in all centres surveyed.

From the time that the first cases were reported from Wuhan, China on the 31^st December 2019,¹ our knowledge of the clinical and virological associations of the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) has been evolving at a rapid pace. On 18^th May 2020, COVID-19 had caused over 4.82 million cases worldwide and resulted in 316,959 deaths.² Whilst the primary focus of management for patients with COVID-19 remains close monitoring of respiratory function, there have been high levels of cardiac dysfunction in emerging cross-sectional and observational analyses, suggesting the need for heightened awareness in patients who may require cardiac input as part of a multidisciplinary approach. We review the current data on the association of COVID-19 and the heart.

There is increasing evidence for the role of exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation in the management of patients with atrial fibrillation (AF). However, this intervention has not yet been widely adopted within the National Health Service (NHS).

We performed a feasibility study on the utilisation of an established NHS cardiac rehabilitation programme in the management of AF, and examined the effects of this intervention on exercise capacity, weight, and psychological health. We then identified factors that might prevent patients from enrolling on our programme.

Patients with symptomatic AF were invited to participate in an established six-week exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation programme, composed of physical activity and education sessions. At the start of the programme, patients were weighed and measured, performed the six-minute walk test (6MWT), completed the Generalised Anxiety Disorder Questionnaire (GAD-7), and the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). Measurements were repeated on completion of the programme.

Over two years, 77 patients were invited to join the programme. Twenty-two patients (28.5%) declined participation prior to initial assessment and 22 (28.5%) accepted and attended the initial assessment, but subsequently withdrew from the programme. In total, 33 patients completed the entire programme (63.9 ± 1.7 years, 58% female). On completion, patients covered longer distances during the 6MWT, had lower GAD-7 scores, and lower PHQ-9 scores, compared with their baseline results. Compared with patients that completed the entire programme, those who withdrew from the study had, at baseline, a significantly higher body mass index (BMI), covered a shorter distance during the 6MWT, and had higher PHQ-9 and GAD-7 scores.

In conclusion, enrolling patients with AF into an NHS cardiac rehabilitation programme is feasible, with nearly half of those invited completing the programme. In this feasibility study, cardiac rehabilitation resulted in an improved 6MWT, and reduced anxiety and depression levels, in the short term. Severe obesity, higher anxiety and depression levels, and lower initial exercise capacity appear to be barriers to completing exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation. These results warrant further investigation in larger cohorts.

The health benefits of physical activity are well documented. Patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) are often discouraged from participating in physical activity due to a perceived increase in the risk of sudden cardiac death (SCD). As a result, only 45% of patients with HCM meet the minimum guidelines for physical activity, and many report an intentional reduction in exercise following diagnosis. Despite most SCD being unrelated to HCM, guidelines traditionally focused on the avoidance of potential risk through restriction of exercise, without clear recommendations on how to negate the negative health impact of inactivity. Retrospective reviews have demonstrated that the majority of cardiac arrests in patients with HCM occurred at rest or on mild exertion and that the overall incidence of HCM-related SCD is significantly lower than previously reported. We will discuss current international guidelines and recommendations and consider the outcomes of various studies that have investigated the effects of exercise of different intensities on patients with HCM. In light of the growing evidence suggesting that carefully guided exercise can be both beneficial and safe in patients with HCM, we ask whether it is time to let the shackles off exercise restriction in HCM.

Refractory angina (RA) is a growing clinical problem. Long-term mortality is better than expected and focus has shifted to improving symptoms, quality of life and psychological morbidity. We established a dedicated multi-disciplinary care pathway for patients with RA and assessed its effect on psychological outcomes, quality of life and polypharmacy. We reviewed electronic health records to capture demographics, changes in medication use, and patient-related outcome measures (Seattle Angina Questionnaire [SAQ] and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale) before and after enrolment.

One hundred and ninety patients were referred to our service. Pre- and post-questionnaire data were available in 83 patients. Anxiety and depression scores significantly improved (p<0.05) as well as quality of life and all subcategories of the SAQ (p<0.0001). Patients were most commonly on three or four anti-anginal drugs. In patients with no demonstrable reversible ischaemia, there was a significant reduction in anti-anginal usage (mean reduction of two drugs) after completion of our pathway (p<0.025).

In conclusion, a dedicated multi-disciplinary pathway for RA is associated with improvements in quality of life, mental health and polypharmacy. An ischaemia-driven method to rationalise medication may reduce polypharmacy in patients with RA, particularly in patients with no demonstrable ischaemia.

“I will give you a new heart and put a new spirit in you; I will remove from you your heart of stone and give you a heart of flesh” – Ezekiel 36:26

The U-wave on electrocardiogram (ECG) is a small deflection following the T-wave, the sixth wave. It is 25% or less of the preceding T-wave in amplitude.^1,2 While the genesis of the U-wave is uncertain, it is said to represent repolarisation of the Purkinje fibres.^1,2 Disproportionally large U-waves may indicate underlying cardiac or non-cardiac pathology. A relatively frequent cause for a large U-wave is hypokalaemia. It is observed in patients with bradycardia, ventricular hypertrophy, hypothyroidism, hypocalcaemia, hypomagnesaemia, mitral valve prolapse, hypothermia, increased intracranial pressure, or patients on anti-arrhythmic medicine.² A negative U-wave, on the other hand, may represent early myocardial ischaemia, specifically in the context of a lesion in the left main or proximal left anterior descending coronary artery.^2,3

Digital healthcare is being introduced to the management of heart failure as a consequence of innovations in information technology. Advancement in technology enables remote symptom and device monitoring, and facilitates early detection and treatment of heart failure exacerbation, potentially improving patient outcomes and quality of life. It also provides the potential to redesign our heart failure healthcare system to one with greater efficacy through resource-sparing, computer-aided decision-making systems. Although promising, there is, as yet, insufficient evidence to support the widespread implementation of digital healthcare. Patient-related barriers include user characteristics and health status; privacy and security concerns; financial costs and lack of accessibility of digital resources. Physician-related barriers include the lack of infrastructure, incentive, knowledge and training. There are also a multitude of technical challenges in maintaining system efficiency and data quality. Furthermore, the lack of regulation and legislation regarding digital healthcare also prevents its large-scale deployment. Further education and support and a comprehensive workable evaluation framework are needed to facilitate confident and widespread use of digital healthcare in managing patients with heart failure.

The ASPirin in Reducing Events in the Elderly trial (ASPREE) contributed important knowledge about primary cardiovascular disease (CVD) prevention among healthy older adults. The finding that daily low-dose aspirin (LDA) does not statistically prevent disability or CVD among adults aged over 70 years when compared with placebo, but does significantly increase risk of haemorrhage, immediately influenced clinical practice guidelines. In this article, we discuss nuances of the trial that may impact the extrapolation of the ASPREE trial results to the everyday individual clinical care of older adults.

A 78-year-old man presented to the emergency department with recurrent episodes of syncope precipitated by a variety of strong aromas. He denied chest pain, breathlessness or palpitations. There were no headaches, no blurred vision or limb weakness or seizure-like activity. On recovery, he had no post-ictal symptoms. He was initially discharged after initial investigations, including electrocardiogram (ECG), were normal. On the way to the main entrance, while passing cleaning equipment (which included strongly smelling bleach), he experienced a further syncopal episode. He was taken into the resuscitation bay, attached to cardiac monitoring and referred to the medical on-call team. When approached by the medical registrar on call (who was wearing ‘powerful’ aftershave), the patient commented the scent was precipitating a further attack. The registrar reviewed the cardiac monitor captured in figure 1 and witnessed a prolonged pause followed by asystole. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) was commenced for approximately one minute, at which point there was a spontaneous recovery of cardiac output and a quick recovery to baseline.

Aldosterone/renin ratio (ARR) is commonly used to screen for primary hyperaldosteronism (Conn’s disease). A number of drugs can alter ARR measurements, thus requiring omission before testing. However, hormonal agents such as the combined oral contraceptive (COCP) or progestogen-only pill (POP) are not listed for omission. A 20-year-old woman was referred to the endocrinology team, following investigations for syncope by her cardiologist, when ARR was found to be elevated. She was taking POP (Cerelle^®) while having ARR measured. After omitting POP for four weeks, plasma aldosterone concentration was reduced by 52% (from 560 pmol/L to 271 pmol/L, reference range: 100–450 pmol/L), plasma renin concentration increased by 253% (from 3.6 mU/L to 12.7 mU/L, reference range: 5.4–30 mU/L) and ARR reduced from 156 to 21 (–86.5%) (reference range: <80 suggests Conn’s unlikely). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first reported case of POP-related false-positive ARR screening for primary hyperaldosteronism. Omission of POP should, therefore, be considered in women undergoing ARR measurement.

Recent advances in immune therapy for cancer have significantly improved the clinical outcomes of patients with advanced cancers, where prognosis has historically been very poor. With these new treatments have come new toxicities and, as the use of immunotherapy increases, we will see an increasing incidence of immune-related adverse events, with patients presenting as an emergency. It is important that all cardiologists, and other physicians who see these patients, are aware of life-threatening immune-related toxicities, in addition to their recommended investigation and treatment.

We describe a patient with acute cardiotoxicity secondary to immune therapy to illustrate the complexity of these adverse cardiovascular events, providing recommendations for screening, diagnosis and management.

This short review of cardiac tumours presents a case that clearly demonstrates the manifestation of embolic and cardiac symptoms of an intracardiac mass. Acute onset and rapid progression of a neoplastic process in the heart leading to arrhythmia, cardiac conduction disorders and heart failure combined with highly mobile fragments of tumour, which can cause emboli in cerebral vessels, are characteristic signs of an intracardiac mass. Early diagnosis and immediate treatment may improve the long-term prognosis, but overall the prognosis is poor. Cardiac tumours present to the cardiologist when the patient presents with cardiac symptoms, and the neurologist when there are cerebral symptoms. Most cardiac masses are not amenable to percutaneous biopsy; therefore, definitive diagnosis often awaits surgical excision.

A 52-year-old man, previously fit and well, presented with myocardial infarction complicated by ischaemic ventricular septal defect (VSD) and acute right ventricular failure, was successfully treated with early percutaneous coronary reperfusion, surgical VSD repair and temporary right ventricular assist device (VAD) support.

This case is an example of how a modern healthcare system can successfully manage complex emergency cases, combining high levels of clinical care and medical technology. Access to temporary mechanical support played a vital role in this case. We believe that wider access to VADs may contribute to improvement in the, widely recognised, poor outcome of ischaemic VSD.

Depressive symptoms in coronary artery disease (CAD) are known to associate with increased mortality. We evaluated management of depression screening in the outpatient setting for patients with known CAD at ambulatory visits. We assessed whether depression screening was performed with a patient health questionnaire, as well as what was done with positive results. Our study identified 355 patients who visited an ambulatory primary care clinic over a three-year period, 57% of whom were screened at least once. Positive scores for depression were found in 20% of patients screened, with 54% of screening-positive patients given plans for additional care. We found disparities between screening rates, with whites screened least for depression, as well as in management plans, with whites given highest probability of mentioned treatment in their assessment and plan if depression screening was positive. Given the association with increased mortality in known CAD, depression screening may represent an opportunity to decrease health outcomes disparities and to improve outcomes for patients with CAD in the outpatient setting.

A syncope pathway for secondary care was launched in the Queen Elizabeth University Hospital (QEUH), Glasgow, in 2016. The pathway aims to risk stratify patients into three categories: high risk (requiring admission), intermediate risk (suitable for discharge ± outpatient review) or low risk (no further investigation required). There are clear referral procedures to the rapid access syncope clinic (RASCL). Our aim was to assess the impact of the pathway on unscheduled care in terms of admission rates, length of stay and referrals to RASCL.

Data were collected on three occasions: before the introduction of the pathway, immediately after and again 14 months later. Those patients with a diagnostic ICD-10 code of ‘syncope and collapse’ or ‘orthostatic hypotension’ presenting to the QEUH (both emergency department and immediate assessment unit, via GP referral) were identified.

There were 779 patients identified, 538 were included for analysis once other diagnoses were excluded: 46% were male with an age range from 16 to 95 years with a median age of 65.5 years.

All high-risk patients were admitted. For intermediate-risk patients the admission rate fell from 62% to 52% immediately after pathway introduction and after one year to 42%, suggesting sustained improvement (p=0.08). Admission for low-risk patients after one year of pathway roll out fell from 27% to 12% (p=0.04). The median length of stay prior to introduction was three days, this fell to one day one-year post-pathway, saving 56 bed days per month.

In conclusion, a syncope pathway and RASCL has reduced admission of low-risk patients, provided appropriate follow-up for intermediate risk, and reduced length of stay for those requiring admission.

National guidelines on lipid modification for cardiovascular disease advise checking a lipid profile in all patients admitted with acute coronary syndrome (ACS). It has been demonstrated that ACS can impact lipid profiles in an unpredictable fashion, so cholesterol measurements should be taken within 24 hours of an infarct. National guidelines also recommend initiating early high-intensity lipid-lowering therapy (i.e. statins) in ACS for secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease. We first assess compliance with these guidelines in a large city-centre teaching hospital and identify the need for any improvement. Following varied interventions aimed at highlighting the need for adherence to these guidelines we demonstrate a large increase in the number of ACS patients having lipids checked within 24 hours of their admission. In some instances, baseline cholesterol was not measured (either at all or prior to statin therapy), potentially leaving familial and non-familial hypercholesterolaemia undiagnosed. Encouragingly, statins are already prescribed in accordance with guidelines for the majority of ACS patients regardless of our campaign. We ultimately demonstrate there is still much work to be done locally to improve cholesterol management in ACS and hope that our findings will encourage others to ensure compliance and ultimately improve patient outcomes.

Emergency transvenous temporary pacing is a potentially lifesaving procedure that can be associated with significant complications. Historically, this procedure was performed by relatively inexperienced doctors. In recent years, there have been moves to improve the delivery of emergency pacing in UK hospitals.

We aimed to identify trends in temporary pacing experience among medical registrars in the southwest of England between 2008 and 2016. Registrars currently or previously accrediting with General Internal Medicine (GIM) were surveyed about experience in emergency transvenous pacing.

There have been significant changes in the delivery of temporary pacing over the two time points. Significantly fewer temporary pacing wires had been inserted by medical registrars in 2016 compared with 2008: mean 4.51 versus 9.82 (p<0.0001). Significantly more medical registrars had never inserted a temporary pacing wire in 2016 compared with 2008: 57/84 (67.9%) versus 18/94 (19.1%), p<0.0001. Registrars increasingly did not rate themselves to be fully competent to perform the procedure in 2016, 76/84 (90%), compared with 54/92 (59%) in 2008, p=0.0097. Perceptions regarding who should provide this service have changed. In 2008, 65/92 (79.6%) thought cardiologists should be the sole operators compared with 81/84 (96.4%) in 2016.

In conclusion, there has been a significant change in the provision of emergency temporary pacing services from 2008 to 2016. UK medical registrars no longer have the experience to perform this procedure. It is hoped that a rapidly delivered, cardiology-led pacing service will continue to improve safety and patient care.

New York Heart Association (NYHA) class IV heart failure is one of the factors used in predicting in-hospital mortality in patients undergoing transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR). The effect of systolic heart failure (SHF), aside from NYHA classification, on peri-procedural outcomes is unclear.

The study population was identified from the 2016 Nationwide Readmissions Data database using International Classification of Diseases-Tenth Revision codes for TAVR and SHF. Study end points included in-hospital all-cause mortality, the length of hospital stay, cardiogenic shock, acute myocardial infarction (AMI), acute kidney injury (AKI), mechanical complications of prosthetic valve, bleeding, and 30-day readmission rate. Propensity matching was used to create a control group of TAVR patients without a SHF diagnosis (TAVR-C).

A total of 5,674 patients were included in each group (mean age 79.9 years; 35.6% female). The groups were comparable in terms of baseline characteristics and comorbidities. TAVR-SHF was associated with significantly higher in-hospital all-cause mortality (2.7% vs. 1.9%, p<0.01), longer hospital stay (7.5 vs. 5.5 days, p<0.01), higher cardiogenic shock (5.1% vs. 1.6%, p<0.01), AMI (4.0% vs. 1.9%, p<0.01), AKI (18.7% vs. 12.4%, p<0.01) and mechanical complications of prosthetic valve (1.2% vs. 0.6%, p<0.01). There was no significant difference between TAVR-SHF and TAVR-C in terms of bleeding (19.5% vs. 18.2%, p=0.08) and 30-day readmission rate (10.8% vs. 10.2%, p=0.29).

Compared with TAVR-C, TAVR-SHF was associated with higher in-hospital peri-procedural complications and all-cause mortality.

The frontal QRS-T angle (QTA) is widely available on routine 12-lead electrocardiograms (ECGs), but its practical significance is little recognised. An abnormally wide QTA is known to be a prognostic predictor of cardiovascular events. It has even been considered as a stronger prognostic predictor than the commonly used ECG parameters including ST-T abnormality and QT prolongation. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of ageing on the QTA in a low-risk population where there were no obvious ECG abnormalities. Having analysed 437 consecutive patients, we found a positive correlation between age and QTA, but no age difference in heart rate, QRS duration, QT interval and P-wave axis. As hypertension was more prevalent in older patients, we compared patients with hypertension to those without and found no significant difference in QTA. Therefore, ageing alone is a significant contributory factor to the widening of QRS-T angle. Further study to confirm QTA as a prognostic predictor for all-cause mortality, independent of age itself and in the absence of ECG abnormalities, in an older population would be significant.

Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging has developed into a crucial diagnostic tool in all patients with known or suspected heart disease. The aim of this study was to review real-world data regarding the case mix and performance of stress CMR for the large Essex region, a population of 1.4 million.

All studies from April 2017 to April 2018 were reviewed. All scans were performed on a 1.5-T scanner (Siemens MAGNETOM Aera). We have not included research scans or repeat studies. A total of 1,706 clinical studies were performed, including 592 adenosine stress perfusion scans (35%). Mean age of patients was 59 years ± 16 (range 16–97) and the majority were male (66%). Ischaemic heart disease (IHD) was diagnosed in 28% of patients. Objective ischaemia was evident in 226 cases (38% of all stress scans). The positive predictive value of stress imaging was 91%. Non-ischaemic cardiomyopathies were diagnosed in 598 patients (35%), including dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM, 23%) and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM, 8%) as the most common phenotypes. The mean left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) was 51% across all groups (range 3–78%) with a significant difference between ischaemic and non-ischaemic cardiomyopathy (48% vs. 41%, p<0.0001); despite this, there was no significant difference in survival (p=0.177).

In conclusion, stress perfusion imaging accurately identifies true-positive ischaemia, as well as offering additional information regarding cardiac structure. The burden of non-ischaemic cardiomyopathy in Essex is significant, with 50 new diagnoses per month, across five hospitals. Coordination of services is needed to standardise practice and management of cardiomyopathy patients.

Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors have opened a new avenue in the management of dyslipidaemia in patients with familial hypercholesterolaemia (FH), but real-world experience with PCSK9 inhibitors is limited.

We aimed to explore the efficacy and safety of PCSK9 inhibitors in a single-centre study, and to conduct a meta-analysis of the available observational studies to report pooled data on these efficacy and safety parameters.

The Hull PCSK9 inhibitor study consisted of patients from the Lipid Clinic at the Hull Royal Infirmary–Hull University Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust during the period 2016–2018. Patients with FH and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) were screened for eligibility and were prescribed PCSK9 inhibitors. Lipid profile, liver function, renal function, and creatine kinase levels were measured at baseline and after a 12-week follow-up. For the meta-analysis, review of the literature identified six additional observational studies for FH, which were used to calculate pooled percentage low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol (LDL-C) reduction.

The Hull PCSK9 inhibitor study consisted of 16 patients with definite FH (LDL-receptor mutation-positive), 20 patients with clinical FH and 15 patients with ASCVD with a mean age of 60.6 ± 13.9 years, 60% female. Baseline median (interquartile range) LDL-C levels (mmol/L) in the definite FH, clinical FH and ASCVD were 4.9 (4.6–5.9), 6.7 (5.3–7.1) and 4.4 (4.1–4.7). After 12 weeks, the LDL-C levels (mmol/L) dropped significantly (p<0.0001) in all three groups to 2.0 (1.6–3.4), 2.3 (1.9–2.6) and 2.2 (1.7–2.8) in the definite FH, clinical FH and ASCVD groups, respectively. The meta-analysis of the seven observational studies in 446 patients with FH showed pooled mean reduction of 55.5 ± 18.1% in the LDL-C levels, with 58% of patients reaching treatment targets. Treatment-associated side effects occurred in 6% to 45% of patients, and 0–15% of patients discontinued treatment due to intolerable side effects.

In conclusion, we showed that PCSK9 inhibitors are overall well-tolerated when used in real-world settings, and their efficacy is comparable with that reported in clinical trials. Longitudinal population-based registries are needed to monitor responses to treatment, treatment adherence and side effects of these lipid-lowering agents.

Cardiac tamponade and myocardial infarction (MI) are rare as the initial presentation of a malignancy. ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) and cardiac tamponade have been described to present together in the setting of a type-A aortic dissection causing coronary malperfusion. We describe a case with an atypical presentation of an MI due to a thrombus in the right coronary artery occurring simultaneously with a pericardial effusion causing tamponade physiology, related to malignancy. We present this unique case of MI and cardiac tamponade as it was not caused by a type-A aortic dissection. We suggest that malignancy be considered in the differential diagnosis when these findings present together.

The management of aortic stenosis has dramatically changed over the last 60 years. We briefly describe these remarkable advances from the personal perspective of Anthony P C Bacon (APCB) who was one of the first physicians to observe the importance of this pathological process and who watched, first-hand, some of the first surgical aortic valve procedures being performed in the UK. He most recently benefited from treatment with transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) himself, and provides a personal perspective of his experiences.

This article is available as a 'Learning with reflection' CPD activity

In November 2016, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) published an update of its guideline for the investigation of chest pain of recent onset (CG95), bringing computed tomography coronary angiography (CTCA) to the forefront as the first-line investigation. CTCA has a high negative-predictive value for the identification of obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD), but its positive-predictive value may be as low as 48%. Moreover, until recently it was unable to determine the functional significance of stenoses identified by CTCA. Using advanced computational fluid dynamics (CFD), HeartFlow® has pioneered a system that can predict the invasive fractional flow reserve (FFR) from a standard CTCA acquisition (FFR_CT). The PLATFORM study has demonstrated that the use of CTCA with FFR_CT was associated with equivalent clinical outcomes in terms of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) and quality of life at one year compared with usual testing. The global ADVANCE registry, and other long-term follow-up studies in over 9,000 patients, have demonstrated extremely good long-term outcomes when patients with CAD but negative FFR_CT are managed conservatively without invasive testing. In a technology appraisal (MTG32), NICE projected that the adoption of this technology within the NHS in England could save at least £9.1 million by 2022. While it is accepted that the HeartFlow® FFR_CT shows a lot of promise, there are a number of limitations that need to be considered.

Radial artery access coronary angiography is associated with high procedural success and lower rates of complications, compared with femoral access, in patients without prior coronary artery bypass surgery (CABG). Whether or not this applies to patients who have undergone CABG is not known.

We retrospectively examined hospital records of 5,993 consecutive patients undergoing coronary angiography to identify patients with previous CABG undergoing the procedure by the radial or femoral access routes. We compared clinical characteristics, procedural success and complications up to 30 days, adjusting for significant baseline differences.

Among the 5,993 patients undergoing angiography, 471 (8%) had previous CABG; 164 (35%) underwent angiography by the radial and 307 (65%) by the femoral artery. Procedural success was lower in the radial than femoral groups; 28/164 (17%) radial versus 1/307 (0.3%) femoral patients required access-site cross-over (p<0.001) and 254/347 (73%) versus 496/594 (84%) bypass grafts were selectively identified without the need for further imaging investigations (p=0.008), respectively. Access-site bleeding requiring compression affected 1/164 (0.6%) in the radial group and 12/307 (3.9%) in the femoral group (p=0.04 for difference) with no significant differences in other major complications.

About one in 12 patients undergoing coronary angiography have had previous CABG surgery. In such patients, the radial access route was associated with lower procedural success than the femoral route but also a lower rate of bleeding complications.

We describe a case of primary meningococcal Y effusive pericarditis in a previously fit and well 35-year-old man who presented with a rapidly developing pericardial effusion resulting in cardiac tamponade. This is a rare, but important, cause of primary pericardial disease, and only the fourth documented case of primary meningococcal pericarditis due to Neisseria meningitidis serotype Y. Our patient was successfully treated with a pericardial drain and intravenous ceftriaxone. Our case highlights the importance of adverse clinical features such as temperature >38°C, subacute course, large effusion or tamponade, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)/aspirin failure, which can identify patients who require close observation as they are at higher risk of complications.

Angiography of internal mammary artery (IMA) grafts continues to be a common indication for upfront femoral access. This is particularly the case for bilateral pedicled IMAs, or when the left radial artery has been grafted. While the right radial artery is ideally suited in these situations for cannulation of the right IMA, accessing the left IMA (LIMA) by this route is often perceived as challenging and for ‘radial evangelists’ only. We describe a case series showing a simple technique for selective cannulation of the LIMA from the right radial artery using a single catheter that provides sufficient backup for percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI).

Gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms are common in patients with postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (PoTS). Our understanding of managing GI symptoms in PoTS is very limited. Our objectives were to evaluate common GI symptoms, diagnostic work-up, diagnosis and management strategy in patients with PoTS.

We retrospectively reviewed medical records of all patients referred to the gastroenterology clinic (2014 to 2017) with GI symptoms and known or suspected PoTS: 85 patients with PoTS and GI symptoms were seen in our clinic. Bloating (75%), constipation (74%) and abdominal pain (60%) were the most common GI symptoms. Endoscopy, high-resolution manometry, gastric-emptying studies and colonic-transit studies were commonly performed investigations. Over two-thirds of patients had confirmed or suspected GI dysmotility, 5.9% had organic GI disease (e.g. inflammatory and acid peptic disorders).

In conclusion, the majority of patients with PoTS have a functional disturbance and reduced GI motility, however, a small proportion have organic disease that needs systematic evaluation. Dietary modifications and laxatives are the main modalities of therapy.

False-negative results either from balanced ischaemia or from failure to induce optimal hyperaemia is a known limitation of vasodilator myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI). We sought to identify the prevalence of false-negative results in the kidney transplant population and to identify the risk factors predictive of false-negative MPI results at our institution.

We retrospectively studied 133 consecutive patients who were referred to us for pre-operative evaluation. Mean age was 56 years and 70% of the subjects were males. All patients who underwent vasodilator MPI and computed tomography coronary angiography (CTCA) were included.

In the studied population, false-negative vasodilator MPI test result prevalence was around 13%. In uni-variable and multi-variable analysis, diabetes and cardiovascular disease (CVD) were predictive of false-negative vasodilator MPI testing results. CTCA had a positive-predictive value (PPV) of 82%.

In conclusion, false-negative results, either from balanced ischaemia or from failure to induce optimal hyperaemia, are a major problem in the pre-operative evaluation of renal transplant patients when the vasodilator MPI test is used. CTCA could be a useful imaging modality in this patient population. We found that diabetes and CVD are significantly associated with false-negative MPI results.

Absence of the pericardium is a rare defect that can be both congenital and acquired. Defects occur through abnormal development of the pleuro-pericardial membranes, which should fuse at the midline and separate the pericardial and pleural cavities.¹ Congenital incidence is thought to be less than one in 10,000,² however, prevalence is uncertain due to the incidental findings of many diagnoses. With increasing use of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) and cardiac computed tomography (CT), diagnosis of pericardial absence is becoming more frequent, however, little is known about the long-term management of these patients.

Studies have suggested that acute coronary syndrome (ACS) may be excluded by a single undetectable high-sensitivity troponin (hs-TnT) taken at least three hours after the onset of symptoms in patients with non-pleuritic chest pain whose electrocardiogram (ECG) is non-ischaemic.

During a six-month period between April and September 2015, we identified 147 consecutive patients with non-pleuritic chest pain and non-ischaemic ECG whose first hs-TnT was less than 5 ng/L at least three hours after the onset of symptoms. We used the Elecsys hs-TnT assay, which has a lower limit of detection of 5 ng/L and a 99^th centile of <14 ng/L.

Sixty-seven of 147 (46%) patients were male. The average age of our cohort was 52 years, range 19–83 years. Coronary heart disease (CHD) was known to have been present in 24 (16%) before the index admission. Median length of hospital stay was 15.4 hours (mean 22.5 hours) with 86 (59%) patients spending more than 12 hours in hospital. We referred 60 (41%) patients to cardiology for further assessment, either during or after admission, in order to rule out unstable angina. No patient was readmitted with hs‑TnT positive ACS, one patient underwent elective revascularisation and no patient died during one year of follow-up. Only one patient was lost to follow-up.

In conclusion, patients with non-pleuritic chest pain, non-ischaemic ECG and undetectable hs-TnT at least three hours after the onset of symptoms have a low risk of hs-TnT positive ACS, revascularisation and death during one year of follow-up. Most such patients could safely be discharged from hospital after a few hours of observation, without the need for a second hs-TnT.

Frailsafe was developed by the British Geriatrics Society as clinical criteria to accurately identify patients at risk of frailty-associated harm on admission to hospital. There is no single validated tool for assessing frailty in heart failure on admission to hospital. The aim is to determine the prevalence of frailty-associated harm and the outcomes of older persons admitted to hospital with decompensated heart failure using Frailsafe screening criteria.

A retrospective cohort study of consecutive patients aged 75 years and over, admitted to hospital with decompensated heart failure within a six-month period was performed. Frailsafe screening criteria were applied to each patient retrospectively and data on length of stay, inpatient mortality, six-month mortality and readmission at six months was collected for all patients. The outcomes were analysed using univariate analysis comparing the patients ‘at risk of frailty-associated harm’ with those ‘not at risk’.

There were 103 patients identified as 75 years or older and admitted with a primary diagnosis of heart failure, 27% (28) were identified as at risk of frailty-associated harm. This cohort had a significantly longer length of stay (3.5 days, p=0.0496), worse six-month mortality (57% vs. 33%, p=0.0274) and more frequent emergency readmissions (2.04 vs. 0.97, p=0.0031).

In conclusion, prevalence of patients at risk of frailty-associated harm measured by Frailsafe in an older population admitted with decompensated heart failure was 27%. Such patients had a longer length of stay, and were at increased risk of readmission and mortality within the following six months. Future research should include analysis of confounding variables, such as comorbidity, in a larger population to aim to identify how to improve outcomes in this particularly high-risk group.

Infective endocarditis (IE) is an increasingly common disease associated with significant morbidity and mortality. It is known that the incidence of IE has been rising globally, but the reasons for this rise are not fully understood. This study sought to investigate the epidemiology of IE in a UK population, with a review of mortality outcomes based on current clinical practice.

Body mass index (BMI) was first proposed in 1835 as a way to standardise body composition assessment for people of different heights, at a time when malnutrition was the main public health concern. BMI has been considered appropriately as a part of nutritional assessment in populations. It is not, however, a useful tool for assessment of individuals because there is so much individual variability in body composition and in its impact on health outcomes. Similarly, high BMI does not distinguish between excess body fat (bad for health) and large muscle mass (good). In contrast, we propose that individuals need to be assessed using clinical criteria, monitored over time to trigger different interventions. A diagnosis of obesity should be based on estimates of body fat (BMI, now being replaced by percentage body fat) at a particular age, and a clinical staging system.

Coronary physiology is the collective term for a group of indexes aimed at directly measuring the intracoronary haemodynamic changes that occur across a stenosis in order to guide revascularisation decision-making. Fractional flow reserve (FFR) uses pharmacological dilatation and miniaturised pressure-wires to measure coronary pressure proximal and distal to a stenosis, thereby estimating flow reduction across a stenosis. Several clinical trials have shown that FFR-guided revascularisation improves clinical outcomes, and that deferring revascularisation in patients shown by FFR to have non-haemodynamically significant lesions is safe. Instantaneous wave-free ratio (iFR) is a novel technique that measures the ratio of distal coronary to aortic pressure during a specific period in diastole that obviates the need for pharmacological vasodilatation. Recent randomised-controlled trials have shown iFR to be non-inferior to FFR with respect to major adverse cardiac events, while reducing adverse procedural symptoms and procedure duration.

Advanced nursing roles supported by competency-based training have been pioneered over the last 25 years, with emphasis on the development of specific medical skills. This has largely been influenced by increasingly complex medical needs, costs of healthcare and the significant reduction in available doctors. With this reduction of doctors in training and departmental support for expanding nursing roles, we devised a local initiative to train an experienced nurse to perform diagnostic coronary angiography. Our aim was to provide a safe and enhanced service and improve procedural efficiency within the cardiac day unit.

A prospective audit of 250 coronary angiography procedures was performed in the training period between 24 September 2014 and 9 October 2015. Post-training, 143 procedures were performed between 12 October 2015 and 20 July 2016. The prospective audit was performed to explore the safety, effectiveness and quality of nurse-delivered diagnostic coronary angiography. An audit form was created to assess each component of the procedure. This included, gaining patient consent, success in gaining arterial access, success in intubating the left and right coronary arteries, observation of haemodynamics, observation of complications and reporting the findings. Financial impact, patient satisfaction and staff perception outcomes were also audited.

When directly compared with contemporaries, nurse-delivered diagnostic coronary angiography resulted in successful and appropriate arterial access, successful intubation of both coronary arteries, safe monitoring throughout the procedure and correct reporting of each study, with a similar level of patient satisfaction.

In conclusion, this study demonstrates that nurses can, under the right supervision and governance, perform diagnostic coronary angiography to a safe, highly effective standard, which is equivalent to contemporaries.

Echocardiography is key for the assessment of aortic stenosis (AS), but taking a good history is also crucial and requires specialist competency. Symptomatic AS requires surgery and, if physicians miss the onset of symptoms, the risk of death rises from 1% per annum in patients without symptoms to 14% on a six-month surgical waiting list. A case is described illustrating the difficulty of obtaining the history in a patient with AS, and suggests how to take a careful history and questions to ask. Patients with a murmur suggesting AS should be considered for a specialist valve clinic.

Over 50,000 cardiac implantable electronic device procedures are undertaken annually in the UK. Despite prophylactic measures, device infection still occurs. Anaphylaxis following teicoplanin is extremely rare with evidence limited to case reports and one case series. We present two fatal cases of anaphylaxis following teicoplanin administration. Both cases meet the World Allergy Organisation definition of anaphylaxis. These cases highlight the importance of anaphylaxis to teicoplanin as a procedural complication. Despite prompt treatment, this reaction was fatal. Operators should be aware of this risk in an era of increasing procedures and rising incidence of anaphylaxis.

Pericardial involvement is sporadic during pregnancy. We present the case of a young woman who presented to the emergency department with a short history of rapidly progressive dyspnoea in her 38^th week of pregnancy. Coronary arteriovenous fistula (CAVF) has been uncommonly described as a cause of pericardial effusion. We believe this is a rare case of a CAVF presenting as cardiac tamponade in pregnancy.

Atrial fibrillation (AF) increases stroke risk fivefold. Oral anticoagulation (OAC) with warfarin reduces the risk of stroke by 64%. Direct oral anticoagulants are non-inferior to warfarin in preventing stroke in non-valvular AF, but have a lower risk of fatal intracranial haemorrhage. We determined how many patients discharged with a diagnosis of ischaemic stroke and AF were prescribed OAC, and established reasons for, and associations with, non-prescription of OAC.

All patients discharged with a diagnosis of ischaemic stroke and AF during the four-year period between 2013 and 2016 within NHS Highland were included in the study. Patients who started OAC after a period of treatment with antiplatelets were considered as being treated with OAC. Electronic patient records provided demographics, CHA₂DS₂-VASc and HAS-BLED scores and information on why patients were not started on OAC.

A total of 181 patients were discharged with a diagnosis of ischaemic stroke and AF over the study period: 52.5% (n=95) were female (p=0.45); 35.4% (n=64) were discharged without OAC. The median CHA₂DS₂-VASc score for patients not treated with OAC was 5 (interquartile range [IQR] 4–6). The median HAS-BLED score was 3 (IQR 2.5–4). There was no difference in rate of OAC prescription between men and women (67% vs. 62%, p=0.45). Patients 80 years of age or older were significantly less likely to be prescribed OAC on discharge than those under 80 years (54% vs. 76%, p=0.002). The two most common reasons for withholding OAC were concern over bleeding risk and falls. Patients treated at a hospital with a stroke unit were no more likely to be discharged on OAC compared with those treated at hospitals without a stroke unit (66% vs. 62%, p=0.64). Of patients not treated with OAC, 64% (n=41) were discharged on long-term antiplatelet drugs.

In conclusion, raising awareness of the relatively low risk of major bleeding, even in elderly patients and in those at risk of falls, might help increase OAC usage and reduce recurrent strokes.

The traditional practice of conducting the first outpatient review six weeks after cardiac surgery is not evidence-based. This study was designed to determine mortality and morbidity in the interval between hospital discharge and the first outpatient follow-up.

We enrolled patients undergoing non-emergency cardiac surgery from June 2016 to May 2017 into this prospective observational study. Prior to hospital discharge, patients were consented and given a questionnaire to document attendance at any healthcare facility. Ethical approval was obtained from the Health Research Authority.

The mean age of the 72 study patients was 68 ± 4 years. The majority underwent coronary artery bypass grafting (56.9%). The six-week postoperative morbidity rate was 38.9% and hospital readmission  15.3%. Morbidity, highest in the first week after discharge, declined to its lowest level by four weeks. Surgical site (13.9%) and respiratory complications (13.9%) were predominant causes of late morbidity. There was no mortality. Most patients (50%) expressed satisfaction with current practice, but a significant number (44.4%) would prefer earlier review.

In conclusion, morbidity during the six-week wait for the first outpatient review after cardiac surgery is not insignificant, but declines over time. Current practice does not seem to enable a positive specialist influence of the post-surgery recovery pathway.

Clinical Trials.gov registration number: NCT02832427

Anti-arrhythmic drugs and pulmonary vein isolation (with radiofrequency ablation) are established treatment options in the management of atrial fibrillation. Both methods have their advantages and drawbacks. Atrial fibrillation is the consequence of complex systemic and atrial factors, resulting in atrial remodelling. Emerging treatment strategies that target and reverse atrial remodelling may offer a promising alternative to anti-arrhythmics and ablation.

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TTC) is characterised by transient left ventricular dysfunction accompanied by apical ballooning of the ventricle. Takotsubo pathophysiology is poorly understood and is often triggered by an emotional or physical stressor. This is a case of a 71-year-old woman who presented with sudden-onset exertional chest pain leading to inferior ST-elevation on electrocardiography (ECG) with a significant troponin rise. Immediate coronary angiography revealed a severe mid-posterior left ventricular (PLV) branch of the right coronary artery stenosis. The left coronary system was normal. Left ventriculogram revealed mid-to-apical ballooning typical of TTC. Considering the disconnect between the coronary and ventriculogram findings, a decision was made to delay percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). The patient was treated with heart failure medications and symptoms improved. Repeat angiogram of the mid-PLV after a short period of medical therapy revealed no coronary lesion and the left ventricular function had normalised. These findings suggest that coronary artery vasospasm may have contributed to the aetiology in this case of TTC. This case adds weight to previous theories of an interplay between TTC and coronary vasospasm.

Movement restrictions are given to patients after cardiac rhythm device implantation, despite little consensus, or evidence that they reduce complications. We conducted a UK survey assessing the nature of the advice and if it varies between individuals and institutions. A survey was distributed to cardiac rhythm teams at UK implanting centres. Questions concerned the advice that is given, its source, and who is responsible for providing it.

There were 100 responses from 42 centres. Advice is given by physiologists, nurses, and cardiologists. Advice comes from local protocols, information leaflets, current hospital opinion, manufacturers, national leaflets, published research and audit data. Within and between centres there was little agreement on what the advice should be. Depending on who gives the advice, a number of leisure pursuits were either completely unrestricted or restricted indefinitely. Cardiologists were less restrictive than others.

In conclusion, this is the first UK survey to assess the movement and mobilisation advice given to patients after device implantation. There is variation in the source and nature of advice. Over-restriction could impact on patients’ quality of life. Contradictory advice could cause uncertainty. Further work should determine the impact of this variation and how the effects could be safely mitigated.

Implantable cardiac monitors (ICMs), also known as implantable loop recorders (ILRs), are used for long-term heart rhythm monitoring of unexplained syncope or in the detection of arrhythmias. These devices are implanted by cardiologists within a cardiac catheter suite environment. The newer generation devices are miniaturised and inserted using a specific tool kit via a minimally invasive procedure. This paper describes the changes we have made to allow these devices to be implanted in a non-theatre environment by a cardiac physiologist and the benefits and cost reduction of this service redesign.

A cardiac physiologist (LC, Band 6) undertook specific training beginning in September 2015. A standard operating procedure (SOP) was developed and patient information videos were commissioned. The new service was introduced in September 2016 in the screening room of our critical care unit (CCU). Data were collected prospectively on the clinical outcome, patient satisfaction and costs.

Over a 13-month period LC independently performed 116 procedures (113 Medtronic Reveal LINQ™ ICMs and 3 St. Judes SJM CONFIRM™) with only one minor complication. Patients were highly satisfied with the redesigned service, which showed a reduction in cost of £241.27 per case.

ICMs/ILRs can be implanted safely and cost-effectively outside a cardiac catheter suite environment by a cardiac physiologist. This requires some specific training, a clinical SOP and is supported by use of dedicated patient information videos.

Previous research estimates that up to 40% of palpitation presentations to the emergency department (ED) have cardiac aetiology. This study was performed to determine the proportion of patients referred on for cardiology investigations that consequentially had new significant pathology diagnosed; and the effect of follow-up investigation on patient re-attendance to the ED with the complaint of palpitations.

Patients referred to a community cardiology centre in 2016 for investigation into palpitations following an ED presentation were included. The diagnosis that each patient received from these investigations was analysed to see whether: (a) new underlying cardiac abnormality was identified and (b) that abnormality was significant, requiring follow-up.

There were 93 patients meeting criteria for analysis: 28% had a cardiac cause for their palpitations elicited, including 11% with new significant pathology identified. Rate of re-attendance to the ED was reduced once cardiology investigations were completed (0.11 presentations/patient; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.04 to 0.18) compared with the investigation period (0.75 presentations/patient; 95%CI 0.3 to 1.2).

In conclusion, although only one tenth of patients referred for investigations had new significant cardiac pathology identified, completing cardiology investigations reduced ED re-attendance.

Recent studies have associated subclinical hypothyroidism with heart failure (HF) and increased mortality. To investigate the relationship between subclinical hypothyroidism and HF in Indian patients we prospectively recruited 350 HF patients between March 2013 and February 2017 at the department of cardiology Yashoda Hospital, Hyderabad, India. All patients underwent fasting serum glucose, lipid profile, N-terminal-pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), and thyroid hormone levels. Risk factors and clinical evaluation were undertaken. We divided thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels into severity grade 1 (≤9.9 mIU/L) and grade 2 (≥10 mIU/L).

Out of 350 HF patients, 191 (54.5%) were men, mean age was 60.4 ± 10.2 years (range 36–85 years). The incidence of subclinical hypothyroidism was 18.5%, 69.4% had normal thyroid function, and 12% had overt hypothyroidism. Mean NT-proBNP levels were 3561 ± 5553 pg/mL and 10.5% suffered in-hospital mortality. Dyslipidaemia (p=0.004), elevated NT-proBNP levels (p<0.0001) and mortality (p<0.0001) were significantly associated with subclinical hypothyroidism compared with euthyroidism. After multi-variate analysis, hypertension (odds ratio [OR] 3.5; 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.32, 3.8), dyslipidaemia (OR 1.7; 95%CI 1.12, 2.8), subclinical hypothyroidism (OR 1.39; 95%CI 0.99, 1.82) and NT-proBNP >600 pg/mL (OR 1.98; 95%CI 1.23, 2.04) were significantly associated with HF. Grade 2 TSH (OR 4.16; 95%CI 2.04, 8.48), elevated NT-proBNP >1800 pg/mL (OR 2.18; 95%CI 1.53, 4.82), and severe left ventricular dysfunction (OR 2.51; 95%CI 1.24, 2.07) were significantly associated with poor outcome.

In conclusion, our study has established that subclinical hypothyroidism is associated with HF and grade 2 TSH has an independent association with in-hospital mortality in Indian patients.

Ivabradine is an I(f)-channel blocker currently used for the treatment of angina and heart failure. Although these channels are known to be found within the sino-atrial node, recent studies have also found localisation within the ventricular myocardium, and there have been reports of ventricular arrhythmia suppression in animal models. We describe an unusual case of significant ventricular ectopy suppression in a patient with non-ischaemic dilated cardiomyopathy. This was accompanied by a significant improvement in percentage pacing from her cardiac resynchronisation device, with corresponding improvement in her functional status. This report suggests, first, that the morbidity and mortality benefit of ivabradine in heart failure may not be solely due to its sino-atrial heart-rate lowering effect, and, second, highlights a potential role for ivabradine in the management of ventricular arrhythmias, which requires further studies to substantiate.

Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (PoTS) can be defined as tachycardia with or without hypotension in the upright posture, and more comprehensively as a manifestation of a wider dysautonomia. The scope of this article is to characterise patients with PoTS and look at patient-rated responses to treatment.

This research comprised a postal survey, sent to patients with diagnosed PoTS at a tertiary hospital in Southwest England. We collected data on the demographics of patients, time to diagnosis, methods of diagnosis, treatments and response to treatment.

PoTS has an impact on quality of life, with patients communicating a drop in quality of life from 7.5 to 3.75 on a 10-point scale. From 40 respondents, 29 patients describe their symptoms improving since diagnosis, with self-rated day-to-day function improving from 3.21 to 6.14 (on a 10-point scale) after initiating treatment.

Many patients experience a delay in receiving a diagnosis with PoTS, and present multiple times to a variety of healthcare professionals. With a simple bedside diagnostic test (sitting and standing heart rate), there is scope to improve the time taken from developing initial symptoms to diagnosis, treatment and an improvement in quality of life.

Thrombus aspiration during primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) has been extensively studied. Conflicting results have consistently emerged, hence, no clear guidance has been produced. The authors have examined several key clinical trials and meta-analyses, and discovered, arguably, major flaws within the designs of most trials, thus, accounting for the persistently discordant results. The authors conclude that there is some evidence to support the selective use of thrombectomy in primary PCI but a large-scale trial with the appropriate patient selection criteria is needed in order to substantiate or refute the argument.

Presentation of an interrupted aortic arch in adulthood is rare, and, up until, recently the only treatment strategy was through surgical repair. Advances in percutaneous interventions for congenital heart disease have included the percutaneous repair of coarctation of the aorta – from straightforward luminal narrowing through to full aortic interruption.^1-3 We present a case of a 28-year-old man who was diagnosed with a complete aortic interruption and successfully percutaneously treated.

Open-heart surgery is a major surgical procedure that requires intensive patient monitoring. Clinicians require prompt laboratory test results to assist them in this monitoring. Timeliness of result delivery is of great importance in taking prompt clinical decisions. We set out to evaluate the performance of the support laboratory before and after domiciliation at the cardiac centre using turnaround time (TAT) of electrolytes and liver function tests as benchmarks.

This hospital-based descriptive study was carried out at the University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital (UNTH), Enugu. The authors conducted a desk review of laboratory records for electrolytes and liver function tests from March 2013 to July 2017. Relevant laboratory personnel were also interviewed to ascertain types of equipment used and possible causes of delay at different stages of transition during the period under review. The TAT was calculated as the time from sample reception to time of dispatch of results.

Between 2013 and 2014, TAT for electrolytes and liver function tests were ~2 and ~6 hours, respectively. In 2015, TAT reduced to ~1 hour for electrolytes and ~1½ hours for liver function tests. Between 2016 and July 2017, TAT further reduced to ~10 minutes for electrolytes and ~30 minutes for liver function tests.

In conclusion, we were able to demonstrate improvement in performance of the support laboratory as shown by a reduction in TAT following the transition from the main laboratory to being domiciled in the cardiac centre.

Myocardial perfusion scintigraphy (MPS) is a non-invasive method that can be used to assess reversible left ventricular myocardial perfusion defect (<20% indicates limited and ≥20% indicates extensive ischaemia), and left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) at rest and at stress. Data on the utility of MPS used to stratify cardiac risk prior to abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) repairs are limited. We evaluated MPS as a stratification tool for patients scheduled for endovascular aneurysm repair (EVAR) or open repair, between 2013 and 2016 at Ashford and St Peter’s NHS Foundation Trust, and 4.9 years (median 2.8 years, interquartile range [IQR] 2.1–3.8) cardiovascular events (n=15, 17.9%) all-cause mortality (n=17, 22.6%). Of the 84 patients recruited (median age 75.7 years, IQR 69.4–79.6), 57 (67.9%) had limited and 27 (32.1%) extensive ischaemia, 62 (73.8%) underwent EVAR and 22 (26.2%) open repair. Compared with open repair patients, EVAR patients were older (median age 70.6 years vs. 76.4 years, p=0.015), had higher rates of extensive ischaemia (13.6% vs. 38.7%, p=0.025), and abnormal LVEF reserve (LVEF at stress minus LVEF at rest ≤0: 40.0% vs. 76.6%, p=0.011), while having lower rates of 30-day postoperative major adverse cardiac events (13.6% vs. 3.3%, p=0.040) but no difference for cardiovascular events (p=0.179) or 4.9 year all-cause mortality (22.7% vs. 22.6%, adjusted hazard ratio 0.80, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.22 to 3.20, p=0.799). Our findings indicate that MPS provides valuable information for AAA repair procedure.

This is a case series of 10 patients who presented with the same electrocardiogram (ECG) manifestation of new-onset giant T-wave inversion and QT prolongation over a period of 24 months in a district general hospital. This unique ECG manifestation has been described with several cardiac and non-cardiac conditions.

Stunned myocardium is a rare, but serious, medical condition, and requires emergency intervention. Short periods of hypoperfusion may lead to a prolonged cardiac hypokinesia (hours to days), even though the perfusion is retained eventually. In other words, although the coronary circulation is retained, the hypokinesia remains. It might be considered as a case of prolonged post-ischaemic dysfunction.

In this case, a 60-year-old woman, visiting her siblings, presented with severe dyspnoea and cyanosis to the emergency department. Pulmonary oedema was diagnosed, and transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) showed general hypokinesia and reduced ejection fraction (15%), nevertheless, sequential TTE monitoring after the required medical intervention revealed a continuous improvement, with a 45% ejection fraction three days later and a specific anterior wall hypokinesia, solely.

In conclusion, rapid diagnosis and treatment are essential for stunned myocardium, as these could change the progress of the clinical condition.

The introduction of such digital technologies as robotic implants, home monitoring devices, wearable sensors and mobile apps in healthcare have produced significant amounts of data, which need to be interpreted and operationalised by physicians and healthcare systems across disparate fields.¹ Most often, such technologies are implemented at the patient level, with patients becoming their own producers and consumers of personal data, something which leads to them demanding more personalised care.²

This digital transformation has led to a move away from a ‘top-down’ data management strategy, “which entailed either manual entry of data with its inherent limitations of accuracy and completeness, followed by data analysis with relatively basic statistical tools… and often without definitive answers to the clinical questions posited”.³ We are now in an era of a ‘bottom-up’ data management strategy that involves real-time data extraction from various sources (including apps, wearables, hospital systems, etc.), transformation of that data into a uniform format, and loading of the data into an analytical system for final analysis.³

A recent survey of healthcare professionals confirms that hyperkalaemia is considered as a common and important clinical issue for patients receiving renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system (RAAS) inhibitors in particular. Successful interventions to manage hyperkalaemia appear beneficial rather than avoidance or dose reduction of these RAAS inhibitors in patients with chronic heart failure, diabetic nephropathy or prior myocardial infarction.

Two newer potassium exchange resins, patiromer and sodium zirconium cyclosilicate (ZS-9), may offer improved predictability, tolerability, and efficacy for managing patients with hyperkalaemia.

A 55-year-old man with suspected community-acquired pneumonia and atrial fibrillation was found to have a very large left atrial myxoma complicated with a pulmonary triad – pulmonary hypertension, pulmonary infarction, and pulmonary lymphadenopathy. The myxoma was successfully removed and complete resolution of all three pulmonary complications followed. He re-presented two weeks post-surgery with atrial flutter, which was medically treated and considered for ablation. We have taken the opportunity to undergo a mini-literature review on myxoma and its pulmonary complications.

The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) released an updated guideline on stable chest pain in 2016. They recommended that all patients with chest pain, typical or atypical, should be investigated with computed tomography coronary angiography (CTCA) in the first instance. Functional imaging tests were reserved for the assessment of patients with chest pain and known coronary artery disease (CAD) and for patients where the CTCA is equivocal or has shown CAD of uncertain significance. The European Society of Cardiology (ESC) guidelines on stable chest pain, however, recommend functional imaging tests for all stable chest pain patients, with CTCA as an alternative in patients with low-to-intermediate likelihood of CAD. The ESC guidelines also allow for the use of the exercise electrocardiogram (ECG) as an alternative to functional imaging tests in patients with low-to-intermediate likelihood of CAD, if functional imaging tests are not available.

Furthermore, traditionally, the aetiology of heart failure or left ventricular (LV) dysfunction was investigated with diagnostic invasive coronary angiography. More recently, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) tissue characterisation was proposed as an effective alternative test. We conducted a survey of UK cardiologists’ opinions on the use of CTCA in patients with stable chest pain and in the investigation of the aetiology of heart failure.

The study sought to evaluate the indications, image quality, safety and impact on patient management of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) in a district general hospital setting.  The database was developed using retrospective analysis of patient records from the start of the local CMR service in January 2014 until January 2017. All 791 consecutive patients were included in the dataset.

The most important indications were the investigation of myocarditis/cardiomyopathies (54.5%), work-up of suspected coronary artery disease (CAD)/ischaemia (27.1%), and assessment of viability (9.1%). Image quality was diagnostic in 99.9% of cases. Mild adverse effects were reported for 3.8% of patients for stress CMR and in 1.1% of non-stress CMR. No serious adverse events were reported in this study population. In 26.5% of cases, CMR findings resulted in therapeutic modifications. In 18.1%, the final diagnosis based on CMR was different to that suspected before the CMR.

In conclusion, the findings of this study emphasise that CMR is a safe procedure with high image quality. In many cases, CMR can be shown to change a patient’s management plan.

Peri-partum cardiomyopathy (PPCM) is one of the leading causes of maternal mortality worldwide, but the exact cause of PPCM is still unknown. PPCM is often associated with many risk factors, especially hypertension in pregnancy. This study aimed to evaluate the most influential risk factors of PPCM in Javanese ethnic patients.

The study was a case-control study involving 96 PPCM patients and 96 healthy non-PPCM parturients (control group) in the Hasan Sadikin Central General Hospital, West Java, Indonesia in the period from 2011 to 2014. A multiple logistic regression analysis was performed to evaluate the most influential risk factors for PPCM.

There were four significant and independent risk factors in this study, which were low socioeconomic status (adjusted odds ratio [OR] 3.312; confidence interval [CI] 1.383, 7.932), history of hypertension in previous pregnancy (adjusted OR 4.862; CI 1.245, 8.988), hypertension in current pregnancy (adjusted OR 2.311; CI 1.164, 4.590), and multi-foetal pregnancy (adjusted OR 7.057; CI 0.777, 64.097). Multiple logistic regression analysis showed the history of hypertension in previous pregnancy or hypertension in current pregnancy were the most influential independent risk factors of PPCM based on the narrowest confidence interval range, and after adjustment for other significant risk factors.

In this study, history of hypertension in previous pregnancy and hypertension in current pregnancy were the most influential and independent risk factors for PPCM. This study may increase awareness of treatment required for patients with hypertension in pregnancy, and also supports the pathogenesis of hypertension in pregnancy associated with PPCM, especially pre-eclampsia.

The clinical presentation of patients with cardiac tamponade largely depends upon the length of time over which pericardial fluid accumulates and the clinical situation. It can result in a clinical picture ranging from cardiogenic shock to general malaise, including dyspnoea, chest discomfort or fullness, peripheral oedema and fatiguability.

Although cardiac tamponade is a clinical diagnosis, two-dimensional and Doppler echocardiography play major roles in the identification of pericardial effusion and in assessing its haemodynamic significance. Despite this, some other imaging techniques or diagnostic tools could also be used for diagnosis. With this case we want to highlight not only the role of the electrocardiogram (ECG), but also its utility in assessing the haemodynamic changes in this clinical entity.

The past decade has seen the emergence of several new classes of drugs for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Despite the increasing use of these agents, metformin and sulfonylureas remain the most commonly prescribed glucose-lowering drugs in people with T2DM. This reflects the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guideline from 2015 and the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN) guideline from 2010, which recommended metformin as first-line treatment and sulfonylureas as the ‘usual’ second-line treatment for patients with T2DM. SIGN has recently provided an updated guideline on the pharmacological management of glycaemic control in people with T2DM. For the first time in UK guidelines, this recommends that in individuals with diabetes and cardiovascular disease, sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists with proven cardiovascular benefit (currently empagliflozin, canagliflozin and liraglutide) should be considered. It is anticipated that implementation of these new guidelines will lead to increased prescribing of these drugs in people with diabetes and cardiac disease, with reductions in prescribing of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors and other drugs in the GLP-1 receptor agonist class, where cardiovascular benefits have not been clearly demonstrated.

Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) can confirm diagnosis in essential hypertension (HTN) and mitigate the ‘white-coat’ effect, preventing erroneous antihypertensive therapy. We aimed to collect a case series of over-treated hypertension in the context of ‘white-coat’ effect, resulting in pre-syncopal or syncopal episodes. We collected data retrospectively from patients presenting to syncope clinic between January 2016 and March 2017. ABPM was used at baseline and repeated at three months, following withdrawal of one or more antihypertensive agents.

There were 39 patients with orthostatic symptoms of syncope/pre-syncope, previous HTN diagnosis and ‘white-coat’ effect included. Reducing antihypertensive therapy increased daytime ABPM (baseline vs. three months: systolic 119 ± 11 vs. 128 ± 8 mmHg, p<0.05; diastolic 70 ± 9 vs. 76 ± 9 mmHg, p<0.05) and resolved symptoms.

In conclusion, some patients exhibit pre-syncope or syncope due to over/erroneous HTN treatment resulting in orthostatic hypotension. Our findings suggest that reducing antihypertensive medications may resolve symptoms, without rendering them hypertensive.

Advancements in computer and transducer technologies over the past two decades have allowed the development of three-dimensional (3D) echocardiography (3DE), which offers significant additional clinical information to traditional two-dimensional (2D) echocardiography (2DE). However, the majority of departmental studies today remain 2D, and adoption of 3DE as a complementary tool into mainstream clinical practice has not been without its difficulties. Although cardiologists have a range of alternative imaging modalities at their disposal to investigate cardiovascular structure and function, given the pace of technological innovation and improvements in data analysis, the field of 3DE is one of great expectation and is likely to be of increasing clinical importance. In this review, we discuss the role of 3DE, its advantages and limitations, and how novel technology will help workflow and expand its routine use.

Refractory angina (RA) is characterised by persistent anginal symptoms despite optimal medical therapy and revascularisation. Enhanced external counterpulsation (EECP) is a technique that has shown promise in the treatment of this condition but is poorly utilised in the UK. The aim of this study is to assess the effect of EECP on anginal symptoms in patients with RA from a UK centre.

This retrospective study assessed the effectiveness of EECP at improving exercise capacity, anginal symptom burden and anginal episode frequency using pre- and post-treatment six-minute walk test (6MWT) results, Canadian Cardiovascular Society (CCS) scores and symptom questionnaires, respectively.

Fifty patients with a median age of 67 years (interquartile range [IQR] 14) underwent EECP between 2004 and 2015. The majority had undergone prior revascularisation (84%; 42/50) via percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and/or coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). Significant improvements were noted in 6MWT result (282 vs. 357 m; p<0.01), CCS score (3.2 vs. 2.0; p<0.01) and weekly anginal episode frequency (20 vs. 4; p<0.01). No adverse outcomes related to EECP were noted.

Our study demonstrates use of EECP to be associated with significant improvements in exercise capacity and anginal symptom burden.

A study of 500 patients was conducted to ascertain how syncope is managed at the Ipswich Hospital NHS Trust. This was based on the variation in approach across the country despite the guidance from the European Society of Cardiology (ESC), National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) and the Heart Rhythm Society. Similar studies in the UK have indicated a number of inconsistencies in both the management and diagnosis of patients with suspected syncope.

We discuss the role of a syncope pathway, the need for a separate syncope clinic and for syncope experts.

A retrospective analysis of 50 inpatients admitted with syncope was undertaken to evaluate the safety and cost-effectiveness of a novel outpatient syncope clinic recently introduced within an emergency ambulatory care unit at a northwest London hospital together with review of echocardiographic parameters in syncope. Outcome measures included length of inpatient admission, frequency of cardiology review, 30-day readmission and 90-day mortality rates. The same variables were assessed prospectively in 50 inpatients referred to the syncope assessment unit (SAU). All 100 patients were deemed low risk, as defined by the San Francisco syncope rule. Patients under the age of 18 years and those investigated for conditions other than syncope were excluded. Echocardiographic parameters such as E/A ratio, left atrial (LA) dimension, left ventricular (LV) ejection fraction and E/E′ ratio were statistically analysed for their association with episodes of syncope.

The standard-care group remained in hospital for a median four days at a cost of €582 (£512). Waiting time for an SAU appointment was a median two days. Inpatient waiting time for 24-hour Holter and transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) investigations were significantly longer for the standard-care group (p<0.05). There was no significant difference in the rates of cardiology review, diagnostic yield, hospital readmission and mortality between the two groups. The SAU will save a projected annual cost of €108,371 (£95,232) on inpatient bed days. The fractional cost of clinical assessment on the SAU is €35 (£31) per patient. Among the echocardiographic parameters analysed, increased E/E′ ratio was associated with syncope (p=0.001).

In conclusion, the introduction of a novel low-risk SAU promotes early discharge from hospital with prompt outpatient medical review and shorter inpatient waiting times for diagnostic investigations. Our data suggest this is both cost-effective and safe. E/E′ echo parameter was observed as a significant parameter in low-risk syncope.

Rhythm disturbances in healthy subjects undergoing Holter recording are well described. The purpose of this study has been to determine the frequency of rhythm disturbances, in particular of multi-focal atrial rhythm, on the 12-lead ECG of patients complaining of palpitation presenting to their GP.

There were 500 electrocardiograms (ECGs) studied. Rhythms were categorised as supraventricular rhythm disturbances, ventricular rhythm disturbances, multi-focal atrial rhythm, sinus arrhythmia and sinus rhythm. Multi-focal atrial rhythm was diagnosed either if there were a minimum of two complexes of each of three or more distinct P-wave shapes, none of which were obvious atrial ectopics, or if an ectopic atrial rhythm morphed into an ectopic atrial rhythm from another atrial focus.

Supraventricular rhythm disturbances (8.6%) were more common than ventricular rhythm disturbances (5.2%). Multi-focal atrial rhythm was found in 12.7% of ECGs and sinus arrhythmia in 4.0%. The relative frequency of the rhythms varied significantly with age, but not by gender or by ethnicity.

In conclusion, a quarter of the subjects with palpitation had a rhythm disturbance on a 10-second 12-lead ECG. Multi-focal atrial rhythm should be considered as a potential cause of palpitation.